Children's Brain Development Benefits from Longer Gestation

Disruptions to brain development associated with shortened gestation place individuals at risk for the development of behavioral and psychological dysfunction throughout the lifespan. The purpose of the present study was to determine if the benefit for brain development conferred by increased gestational length exists on a continuum across the gestational age spectrum among healthy children with a stable neonatal course. Neurodevelopment was evaluated with structural magnetic resonance imaging in 100 healthy right-handed 6- to 10-year-old children born between 28 and 41 gestational weeks with a stable neonatal course. Data indicate that a longer gestational period confers an advantage for neurodevelopment. Longer duration of gestation was associated with region-specific increases in gray matter density. Further, the benefit of longer gestation for brain development was present even when only children born full term were considered. These findings demonstrate that even modest decreases in the duration of gestation can exert profound and lasting effects on neurodevelopment for both term and preterm infants and may contribute to long-term risk for health and disease

Maternal Prenatal Cortisol Trajectories Predict Accelerated Growth in Infancy

Higher maternal cortisol in pregnancy has been linked to childhood obesity. Much of the previous research has been limited in that cortisol in pregnancy is only measured at one time-point, precluding the ability to examine critical timing effects of prenatal maternal cortisol. To fill this gap, this longitudinal study measured maternal plasma cortisol at 15, 19, 25, and 31 weeks of pregnancy, and assessed infant body mass index percentile (BMIP)1 at birth, 3, 6, 12, and 24 months in 189 mother-infant pairs. Three distinct patterns of maternal cortisol in pregnancy (typical, steep, and flat trajectories) were identified using general growth mixture modeling (GGMM)2 and then used to predict child growth patterns using multilevel modeling. Infants of mothers who had flat cortisol trajectories, characterized by relatively high cortisol in early gestation that plateaus by mid-gestation, experienced more rapid increases in BMIP from birth to 6 months, and had higher BMIPs at 3 and 6 months, than infants whose mothers had the typical slow cortisol rise over gestation, or steep (rapidly accelerating) trajectories. These results suggest that it is not just the total amount of maternal cortisol in pregnancy that shapes early infant growth, but instead the timing and trajectory of prenatal cortisol exposure. To better understand the early origins of obesity risk, future research is needed to investigate the factors that shape mothers’ prenatal cortisol trajectories

Temporal Relation Between Pubertal Development and Peer Victimization in a Prospective Sample of US Adolescents

Peer victimization typically peaks in early adolescence, leading researchers to hypothesize that pubertal timing is a meaningful predictor of peer victimization. However, previous methodological approaches have limited our ability to parse out which puberty cues are associated with peer victimization because gonadal and adrenal puberty, two independent processes, have either been conflated or adrenal puberty timing has been ignored. In addition, previous research has overlooked the possibility of reverse causality—that peer victimization might drive pubertal timing, as it has been shown to do in non-human primates. To fill these gaps, we followed 265 adolescents (47% female) prospectively across three-time points (Mage: T1 = 9.6, T2 = 12.0, T3 = 14.4) and measured self-report peer victimization and self- and maternal-report of gonadal and adrenal pubertal development on the Pubertal Development Scale. Multilevel modeling revealed that females who were further along in adrenal puberty at age 9 were more likely to report peer victimization at age 12 (Cohen\u27s d = 0.25, p = .005). The relation between gonadal puberty status and peer victimization was not significant for either sex. In terms of the reverse direction, the relation between early peer victimization and later pubertal development was not significant in either sex. Overall, our findings suggest that adrenal puberty status, but not gonadal puberty status, predicted peer victimization in females, highlighting the need to separate gonadal and adrenal pubertal processes in future studies

Patterns of Maternal Distress from Pregnancy Through Childhood Predict Psychopathology During Early Adolescence

Capitalizing on a longitudinal cohort followed from gestation through adolescence (201 mother–child dyads), we investigate the contributions of severity and stability of both maternal depressive and perceived stress symptoms to adolescent psychopathology. Maternal depressive and perceived stress trajectories from pregnancy through adolescence were identified with latent class growth analyses, and associations with adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms were examined. For both depression and stress, the most common trajectory group comprised mothers displaying stable and low symptom levels over time, and adolescents of these mothers had the fewest internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Maternal membership to one or more aberrant trajectory groups predicted higher levels of internalizing and externalizing symptoms, determined by both maternal and adolescent self-report. This study indicates that profiles of multiple indicators of maternal psychopathology assessed across childhood, beginning prenatally, can provide critical additional insight into child psychopathology risk

Cesarean Delivery and Infant Cortisol Regulation

Background: Cesarean delivery reduces the risk of infant and maternal morbidity and mortality when medically indicated, however, the cesarean delivery rate is estimated to be two to three times higher than medically necessary. The World Health Organization and American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists have expressed concern over the high rates of cesarean delivery, citing evidence that cesarean delivery has negative short- and long-term consequences for the health of the infant, mother, and for future pregnancies. Infants delivered by cesarean are at an increased risk of metabolic disease and immune dysfunction throughout the lifespan. Preliminary research suggests that the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis is a plausible pathway linking cesarean delivery to poor health later in life. The present study examines the relation between mode of delivery and HPA axis function in six-month-old infants. We also examine whether the cesarean delivery was elective or indicated altered to the relation between mode of delivery and infant cortisol profiles. Methods: The sample included 136 mother/infant pairs. Thirty-nine women delivered by cesarean and 97 delivered vaginally. Maternal and infant medical records were reviewed for prenatal medical history and birth outcomes. Infant saliva was collected for cortisol analysis at a 6-month well-baby checkup. Samples were collected upon arrival to the appointment (baseline) and 20 min after exposure to a painful stressor, the inoculation procedure (response). A mixed model ANCOVA was conducted to determine whether salivary cortisol concentrations differed between the two delivery groups. To examine whether complications related to having an indicated cesarean delivery contributed to any association between mode of delivery and cortisol production, cortisol concentrations were compared between the subgroup of infants whose cesarean deliveries were elective (e.g. maternal request or previous cesarean delivery) to infants delivered vaginally. Results: Infants delivered by cesarean had lower cortisol concentrations at baseline and after the inoculation procedure compared to those delivered vaginally. Further, the relation between mode of delivery and cortisol levels persisted even when the analyses were restricted to compare only the elective cesarean deliveries (e.g. maternal request or previous cesarean delivery) to those delivered vaginally. Discussion: This study provides evidence for an association between cesarean delivery and infant HPA axis function in infancy. Findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the HPA axis is a plausible pathway that links cesarean delivery with long-term health outcomes

Experiences of COVID-19-Related Racism and Impact on Depression Trajectories Among Racially/Ethnically Minoritized Adolescents

Purpose In 2020, racially/ethnically minoritized (REMD) youth faced the “dual pandemics” of COVID-19 and racism, both significant stressors with potential for adverse mental health effects. The current study tested whether short- and long-term trajectories of depressive symptoms from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic differed between REMD adolescents who did and did not endorse exposure to COVID-19-era-related racism (i.e., racism stemming from conditions created or exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic). Methods A community sample of 100 REMD adolescents enrolled in an ongoing longitudinal study of mental health was assessed before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were 51% girls, mean age = 16, standard deviation = 2.7, and identified as Latinx/Hispanic (48%), Multiethnic (34%), Asian American (12%), and Black (6%). Results REMD adolescents\u27 depressive symptoms were elevated during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to pre-pandemic levels, and increases were more pronounced over time for those who endorsed exposure to COVID-19-era-related racism. In general, Asian American participants endorsed racism experiences at the highest rates compared to others, including being called names (42%), people acting suspicious around them (33%), and being verbally threatened (17%). Additionally, more than half of Black and Asian American participants reported worry about experiencing racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic, even if they had not experienced it to date. Discussion REMD adolescents are at increased risk for depressive symptoms related to converging stressors stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic and pandemic-related racism, which has the potential to widen racial/ethnic mental health disparities faced by the REMD youth

Infant Hedonic/Anhedonic Processing Index (HAPI-Infant): Assessing Infant Anhedonia and Its Prospective Association with Adolescent Depressive Symptoms

Background Anhedonia, an impairment in the motivation for or experience of pleasure, is a well-established transdiagnostic harbinger and core symptom of mental illness. Given increasing recognition of early life origins of mental illness, we posit that anhedonia should, and could, be recognized earlier if appropriate tools were available. However, reliable diagnostic instruments prior to childhood do not currently exist. Methods We developed an assessment instrument for anhedonia/reward processing in infancy, the Infant Hedonic/Anhedonic Processing Index (HAPI-Infant). Exploratory factor and psychometric analyses were conducted using data from 6- and 12-month-old infants from two cohorts (N = 188, N = 212). Then, associations were assessed between infant anhedonia and adolescent self-report of depressive symptoms. Results The HAPI-Infant (47-items), exhibited excellent psychometric properties. Higher anhedonia scores at 6 (r = 0.23, p \u3c .01) and 12 months (r = 0.19, p \u3c .05) predicted elevated adolescent depressive symptoms, and these associations were stronger than for established infant risk indicators such as negative affectivity. Subsequent analyses supported the validity of short (27-item) and very short (12-item) versions of this measure. Limitations The primary limitations of this study are that the HAPI-Infant awaits additional tests of generalizability and of its ability to predict clinical diagnosis of depression. Conclusions The HAPI-Infant is a novel, psychometrically strong diagnostic tool suitable for recognizing anhedonia during the first year of life with strong predictive value for later depressive symptoms. In view of the emerging recognition of increasing prevalence of affective disorders in children and adolescents, the importance of the HAPI-Infant in diagnosing anhedonia is encouraging. Early recognition of anhedonia could target high-risk individuals for intervention and perhaps prevention of mental health disorders

Mothers’ Prenatal Distress Accelerates Adrenal Pubertal Development in Daughters

Human life history schedules vary, partly, because of adaptive, plastic responses to early-life conditions. Little is known about how prenatal conditions relate to puberty timing. We hypothesized that fetal exposure to adversity may induce an adaptive response in offspring maturational tempo. In a longitudinal study of 253 mother-child dyads followed for 15 years, we investigated if fetal exposure to maternal psychological distress related to children’s adrenarche and gonadarche schedules, assessed by maternal and child report and by dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), testosterone, and estradiol levels. We found fetal exposure to elevated maternal prenatal psychological distress predicted earlier adrenarche and higher DHEA-S levels in girls, especially first-born girls, and that associations remained after covarying indices of postnatal adversity. No associations were observed for boys or for gonadarche in girls. Adrenarche orchestrates the social-behavioral transition from juvenility to adulthood; therefore, significant findings for adrenarche, but not gonadarche, suggest that prenatal maternal distress instigates an adaptive strategy in which daughters have earlier social-behavioral maturation. The stronger effect in first-borns suggests that, in adverse conditions, it is in the mother’s adaptive interest for her daughter to hasten social maturation, but not necessarily sexual maturation, because it would prolong the duration of the daughter allomothering younger siblings. We postulate a novel evolutionary framework that human mothers may calibrate the timing of first-born daughters’ maturation in a way that optimizes their own reproductive success

Maternal Prenatal Cortisol Programs the Infant Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis

One of the key proposed agents of fetal programming is exposure to maternal glucocorticoids. Experimental animal studies provide evidence that prenatal exposure to elevated maternal glucocorticoids has consequences for hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis functioning in the offspring. There are very few direct tests of maternal glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, during human pregnancy and associations with infant cortisol reactivity. The current study examined the link between maternal prenatal cortisol trajectories and infant cortisol reactivity to the pain of inoculation in a sample of 152 mother-infant (47.4% girls) pairs. The results from the current study provide insight into fetal programming of the infant HPA axis, demonstrating that elevated prenatal maternal cortisol is associated with a larger infant cortisol response to challenge at both 6 and 12 months of age