Life Cycle Assessment of Icelandic Arctic Char Fed Three Different Feed Types

This study utilized Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to quantify the environmental impacts of 1 kg of live-weight Arctic char, cultivated in an Icelandic land-based aquaculture farm. The functional unit included assessments of three different feed types; standard feed with high inclusion levels of marine ingredients (Conv.), experimental feed with high inclusion levels of agricultural ingredients (ECO) and a hypothetical Black soldier fly larvae based feed (BSF). Results of the study indicated that the feed production causes the greatest environmental impacts from all feed types considered. The Black soldier fly based feed demonstrated the best environmental performance of the three feed types. Furthermore, it can be concluded that by increasing agriculture based ingredients at the cost of marine based ingredients, a better environmental performance can be reached. This study demonstrated the importance of feed production for aquaculture in terms of environmental impacts and showed that byoptimizing feed consumption, reducing the amount of fishmeal and fish oil and even creating new types of feed from novel ingredients, the overall impacts of aquaculture can be greatly reduced.The study was conducted as a part of MSc studies in Environmental and Natural Resources at the University of Iceland, in collaboration with Matis ltd., Icelandic food and biotech R&D, which also funded the project. The authors are grateful for the financial and expert support provided by both entities. The authors would also like to thank the owner of the aquaculture company involved in the study, for clear and concise data provision, and also other companies that provided data for this study.Peer Reviewe

Methodology for Designing a Sustainability Assessment Framework for Geothermal Energy Developments

ABSTRACT Geothermal projects have significant socio-economic and environmental impacts, both positive and negative. In order for energy developments to contribute to sustainable developments they must result in positive impacts in all dimensions. Sustainability assessments are valuable tools for policy-or decision-makers for making informed conclusions regarding policy effectiveness and progress toward sustainable development. Currently available assessment frameworks are not suited to assessing geothermal projects, thus a new, specialized framework is required. The methodology for developing a geothermal sustainability assessment framework is described in this paper. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Geothermal Energy and Sustainable Development Energy usage worldwide is increasing. Global energy demand is predicted to grow by more than one-third by 2035, with China, India and the Middle East accounting for 60% of the increase (International Energy Agency, 2012). The use of alternatives such as geothermal energy is set to increase, since the world has only a finite supply of fossil fuels. As well as this, in order to combat climate change and fulfill international agreements, low carbon energy sources such as geothermal energy are now being tapped on a larger scale. In 2008, geothermal energy represented around 0.1% of the global primary energy supply, but estimates predict that it could fulfill around 3% of global electricity demand, as well as 5% of global heating demand by 2050 (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2012)

The need for integrated valuation tools to support decision-making – The case of cultural ecosystem services sourced from geothermal areas

Post-print (lokagerð höfundar)Developing geothermal power projects may lead to trade-offs, whereby the economic and social benefits of the venture are difficult to compare with its cultural consequences, which include impacts to ES such as aesthetics, spiritual enrichment and inspiration. The socio-cultural rather than monetary character of such impacts reinforce the importance of a pluralist approach to valuation, in order to ensure that all human well-being impacts linked to the development of geothermal power projects are accounted for in appropriate decision-support tools, which can successfully integrate diverse values concerning the environment. In this short communication, this paper considers the various impacts to cultural ecosystem services that are associated with the development of geothermal power projects, and a literature review is conducted concerning the extent to which cultural impacts have been included within Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA). Using the Search, Appraisal, Synthesis and Analysis, and snowballing methods, eight studies are identified. This review finds, with one exception, a lack of focus on cultural impacts and limited stakeholder consultation. This issue could potentially be of particular concern in relation to geothermal power projects impacting indigenous communities, whereby decision-making is frequently conducted according to the notion of the national good, with local interests relegated in importance.This paper has been subject to funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research programme in relation to the DEEPEGS project (grant no. 690771), RANNIS (The Icelandic Centre for Research) (grant no. 163464053), the Landsvirkjun Energy Research Fund, and Vegagerðin (The Icelandic Road and Coastal Administration).Peer Reviewe

Socio-cultural valuation of whale ecosystem services in Skjálfandi Bay, Iceland

Pre-print (óritrýnt handrit)The study examines the socio-cultural values of multiple ecosystem services (ES) sourced from whales in Skjálfandi Bay, North Iceland, with many beneficiaries living in and visiting the town of Húsavík. The study begins to address the research gap in non-monetary valuation of marine ecosystem services. Based on a multi-method approach, it elicits stakeholders' perceptions of the contribution of whale ES to human wellbeing using stakeholder mapping, semi-structured interviews, observations, and socio-cultural preference surveys. The key whale ES identified by the local stakeholders were cultural, most frequently mentioned being recreation and education. The most commonly mentioned ES values were related to economic benefits from the whale watching industry. The preference survey reveals that regulating and maintenance ES were valued most highly with a mean score of 4.0 out of 5.0, cultural ES were second with a mean score of 3.5, and provisioning ES in the form of food and raw materials were valued the least with a mean of 0.75. Interview data also reveals some marine ES management challenges originating from intensified tourism, industrial development, and climate change. The results of the study have the potential to inform marine resource management in Iceland by including socio-cultural values associated with whale resources.This paper has been subject to funding from NordForsk (grant number 76654) via their financial support to the Nordic Centre of Excellence ARCPATH (Arctic Climate Predictions – Pathways to Resilient, Sustainable Communities) and the Doctoral Grant of the University of Iceland Research Fund

It is best to ask: Designing a stakeholder-centric approach to selecting sustainable energy development indicators

Sustainable energy development is a complex and multi-dimensional concept that is integral to sustainable development. This paper offers an approach to selecting comprehensive and robust indicators to monitor progress towards this international policy objective. Numerous weaknesses in current indicator sets for sustainable energy development have been identified, e.g., lack of transparency, imbalanced representation of the pillars of sustainable development, and the absence of stakeholder engagement during development. Currently, no standardized approach to indicator selection exists. In this paper, an iterative process to indicator selection for sustainable energy development is presented. This process is rooted in stakeholder engagement to ensure a representative indicator set and reduce the potential for bias in indicator selection. A diverse and balanced group of stakeholders should be engaged through interviews, focus groups, and a Delphi survey to capture stakeholders' views of sustainable energy development within a particular setting. Based on stakeholder input, the main themes of sustainable energy development are identified, which corresponds to a thematic conceptual framework for indicator development. These results are connected to established indicators to produce a preliminary set of indicators. Subsequently, a set of indicator assessment criteria are applied to assess the quality of indicators and eliminate overly correlated indicators. In the end, a comprehensive and robust set of indicators for sustainable energy development is produced that reflects the context in question. To ensure the usefulness of the indicator set to decision-makers and stakeholders, information such as the necessary formulas and data sources should be provided.This research was financially supported by Rannis – The Icelandic Centre for Research [grant number: 163464-051], the National Power Company of Iceland, the Icelandic Road and Coastal Administration, the Eimskip University Fund, and the Icelandic national federation of Graduate Women International. The researchers would like to thank Birgitta Steingrímsdóttir for her assistance in developing this process

How Does the Arctic Council Support Conservation of Arctic Biodiversity?

Publisher's version (útgefin grein)The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum promoting cooperation, coordination and interaction among Arctic states, indigenous communities, and peoples on issues of common importance. The rising geo-political importance of the Arctic and the onset of climate change has resulted in the Council becoming a focus of increasing interest from both inside and beyond the Arctic. This has resulted in new demands placed on the Council, attracting an increasing number of participants, and instigating a period of transformation as Arctic states work to find a way to balance conflicting demands to improve the Council's effectiveness and take care of national interests. This paper considers whether, during this time of change, the Council is having an impact on the issues it was formed to address, i.e., environmental protection and sustainable development. To provide answers, it looks at how the Council reports on and evaluates progress towards the implementation of recommendations it makes regarding biodiversity, how it identifies where activities have had impacts and uncovers the mechanisms through which they were successful, to provide an insight into how the Arctic Council can be an agent of change.We thank the numerous people who took time to review this paper and provide insights and constructive comments which led to its improvement. This work is supported by, and contributes to, the NordForsk-funded Nordic Centre of Excellence project (award 76654) Arctic Climate Predictions: Pathways to Resilient, Sustainable Societies (ARCPATH).Peer Reviewe

Review of indicators for sustainable energy development

Sustainable energy development has become an international policy objective and an integral part of sustainable development. It is necessary to develop a robust and comprehensive set of indicators to monitor progress towards sustainable energy development. This analysis aimed to assess established indicator sets for sustainable energy development. The characteristics of a comprehensive and robust indicator set were identified to enable such an assessment and used as a basis for six assessment criteria; transparency of indicator selection and indicator application, conceptual framework, representative, linkages, and stakeholder engagement. A total of 57 indicator sets were found that monitor progress towards sustainable energy development or some aspects of it. All but one of these indicator sets were found to be lacking in some aspect, especially regarding a lack of transparency and consideration of linkages between indicators, presentation of an imbalanced picture, and no involvement of stakeholders during indicator development. The only indicator set that met all criteria were Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development developed jointly by multiple international agencies. Nonetheless, several flaws in this set were identified. The Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development could be considered as an initial basket of indicators for further refinement in the context where they will be applied to ensure their policy relevance and usefulness. The refinement process would benefit from more stakeholder input to take into account the specific context and make sure that there is a balance in the representation of the three dimensions of sustainable development.This research was financially supported by Rannis – The Icelandic Centre for Research [grant number: 163464-051], the National Power Company of Iceland, the Icelandic Road and Coastal Administration, the Eimskip University Fund, and the Icelandic national federation of Graduate Women International. The authors acknowledge Laura Malinauskaite and her co-authors for their permission to use their diagram of a modified SALSA framework.Pre-prin

Sustainable energy development: History of the concept and emerging themes

Sustainable energy development is a complex multi-dimensional concept that can vary in meaning based on the context it is applied in and the perspective of the user. The role of energy in achieving sustainable development was recognized when the concept was first put forward in 1987. However, what that role consisted of was not made clear. Since then, the concept of sustainable energy development has developed to become a prominent policy objective on the international agenda, as evidenced by the introduction of the UN's Sustainable Development Goal 7 on energy. This paper presents an overview of the history of the concept as well as its emerging themes. Through a citation analysis, the most cited open-access publications relevant to the concept were identified. A thematic analysis of these most cited publications led to the identification of four interrelated themes of sustainable energy development; access to affordable modern energy services, sustainable energy supply, sustainable energy consumption, and energy security. The overarching goal of sustainable energy development was defined as furthering sustainability. Equitable access to affordable and reliable modern energy services is integral to sustainable development. A transformation of the current energy system is necessary to reduce its harmful impacts, both on the supply and demand side. This transformation is not possible unless it is economically viable through, for instance, cost-competitive technologies and changes in energy pricing to reflect the external costs of energy.This research was financially supported by Rannis – The Icelandic Centre for Research [grant number: 163464–051], the National Power Company of Iceland, the Icelandic Road and Coastal Administration, the Eimskip University Fund, and the Icelandic national federation of Graduate Women International

Ecosystem services in the Arctic: a thematic review

Post-print (lokagerð höfundar)The study presents the first systematic review of the existing literature on Arctic ES. Applying the Search, Appraisal, Synthesis and Analysis (SALSA) and snowballing methods and three selection criteria, 33 publications were sourced, including peer-reviewed articles, policy papers and scientific reports, and their content synthesised using the thematic analysis method. Five key themes were identified: (1) general discussion of Arctic ES, (2) Arctic social-ecological systems, (3) ES valuation, (4) ES synergies and/or trade-offs, and (5) integrating the ES perspective into management. The meta-synthesis of the literature reveals that the ES concept is increasingly being applied in the Arctic context in all five themes, but there remain large knowledge gaps concerning mapping, assessment, economic valuation, analysis of synergies, trade-offs, and underlying mechanisms, and the social effects of ES changes. Even though ES are discussed in most publications as being relevant for policy, there are few practical examples of its direct application to management. The study concludes that more primary studies of Arctic ES are needed on all of the main themes as well as governance initiatives to move Arctic ES research from theory to practice.Peer Reviewe

Whale sanctuaries – An analysis of their contribution to marine ecosystem-based management

Post-print (lokagerð höfundar)Goal 14, ‘Life Below Water’, of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals sets a target for nations to increase the number of marine protected areas managed using ecosystem-based management, which requires interventions focused on fish stock conservation and enhancement, environmental sustainability and ecosystem services of benefit to human beings. Although not adhering to the International Union for Conservation of Nature's criteria for marine protected areas, whale sanctuaries are an increasingly common approach to conservation around the world. This paper is the first in the academic literature to use a case study approach to review the extent to which whale sanctuaries contribute to ecosystem-based management. A fifteen-criteria framework for marine ecosystem-based management is applied with reference to six whale sanctuary case studies, including the International Whaling Commission's two designations in the Indian Ocean and Southern Ocean. The review underscores the generally very limited contribution of whale sanctuaries to ecosystem-based management, unless they are explicit in stating conservation goals and embedding these within iterative management plans. The Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary is cited as an example of an approach that comes closest to fulfilling the objectives of ecosystem-based management, albeit its designation lacks consideration of ecosystem dynamics and the interrelationships between multiple economic actors operating within its boundaries. In order to meet the requirements of Goal 14, the case studies in this paper reveal advancements necessary for whale sanctuaries to transition towards ecosystem-based management: establishment of objectives broader than the conservation of whale stocks, assessment of the contribution of the sanctuary to human well-being and trade-offs in ecosystem services, accounting for ecological and socio-economic dynamics, and ensuring broad stakeholder consultation and participatory adaptive management.This paper has been funded by NordForsk (grant number 76654) via their financial support to the Nordic Centre of Excellence ARCPATH (Arctic Climate Predictions – Pathways to Resilient, Sustainable Communities).Peer Reviewe