Rosiglitazone decreases chemokine expression in adipocytes and chemokine receptor expression in SVCs.

<p>Expression of macrophages chemokines in adipocytes fraction (A) and corresponding receptors (B) in stromal vascular fraction were quantified with QPCR. Eotaxin-1 and corresponding receptor, CCR3 are shown in white, MIP1α and RANTES corresponding receptors CCR1 and CCR5 are shown in light grey, Fractalkine and corresponding receptor CX3CR1 are shown in dark grey, MCP1 and corresponding receptor, CCR2, are shown in black. C) QPCR analysis of PPARγ in adipocytes and SV fractions. D) TNFα expression in stromal vascular fraction was determined by qPCR. D) CD68 and Glut4 expression were quantified from SVF and adipocytes fractions by qPCR. ** P<0.01. A, B above the bars show statistical groups (p<0.05).</p

PPARγ signaling decreases secretion of chemoattractants from adipocytes.

<p>A) Mature 3T3L1 adipocytes were exposed 24 hours to 500 µM FFA mixture (arachidonic, lauric, linoleic, myristic and oleic acids, 100 µM final each) in presence or absence of Rosi (1 µM). After washes, 24 hours adipocytes conditioned media were prepared, in absence of treatment and used for chemotaxis assay on Raw264.7 macrophages. B) PPARγ siRNA or controls (Ctrl) were injected in mature 3T3L1 adipocytes. 24 hours after electroporation, adipocytes were exposed to FFA mixture or vehicle, for 16 hours. After washes, 24 hours adipocytes conditioned media were prepared, in absence of treatment and used for chemotaxis assay on Raw264.7 macrophages. C) QPCR was used to quantify PPARγ and MCP1 from the adipocytes treated as above. D) Western-blots were performed in order to quantify efficient PPARγ knockdown, HSP90 protein is shown as internal control. * P<0.05; # P<0.05 for Rosi <i>vs</i> Vehicle in absence of FFA in 1A; and for PPARγ siRNA <i>vs</i> Luciferase siRNA in absence of FFA.</p

The downregulation of MCP1 expression by Rosi does not require <i>de novo</i> protein synthesis.

<p>3T3L1 were treated for 1 Hr with 10 µM cycloheximide (CHX), followed by 1 Hr with Rosi (1 µM) and 5 hours with TNFα (10 ng/ml). MCP1 expression was then quantified with QPCR (A) whereas MCP1 secretion was quantified with ELISA in the corresponding conditioned media (B). ** P<0.01; N.D., Not Detected.</p

Arachidonic Acid prevents PPARγ transrepressional activity on chemokines secretion by adipocytes.

<p>MCP1 concentration was quantified with ELISA from 24 hours 3T3L1 conditioned media (A). Conditioned media were either prepared from adipocytes not stimulated (Veh), treated with TNFα (10 ng/ml), with 500 µM of FFAs mixture (containing 100 µM Arachidonic Acid) or with 100 µM of Arachidonic Acid (ARA) alone. Cotreatment with Rosi (1 µM) was also perfomed (white bars). Media used for preparation of conditioned media is shown for reference (−). QPCR analysis of PPARγ (B) MCP1 and KC (C) and adiponectin (AdipoQ) and aquaporin 7 (AQP7) (D) expression in 3T3L1 adipocytes exposed to 100 µM of Arachidonic Acid (ARA), Rosi (1 µM) or both compounds; ** p<0.01 <i>vs</i> Untreated, # p<0.05 <i>vs</i> Rosi. Letters above the bars show statistical groups (p<0.05).</p

Chronic treatment with Rosi causes increased adiposity with decreased ATM content.

<p>A) QPCR quantification of macrophages markers, CD68 and F4/80, in epidydimal WAT of mice fed 16 weeks with a normal chow diet (NCD), a high fat diet (HFD) in absence or presence of Rosi. Epididymal fat weights of mice described above (B) and association between CD68 expression and eWAT (C) * P<0.05; ** P<0.01. D) Facs analysis of F4/80, CD11b and CD11c were performed on cells from stromal vascular fractions of mice fed with normal chow, high fat diet (16 weeks) or high fat diet for 13 weeks followed by three weeks treatment with Rosi. Plots data represent the relative expression of CD11b and CD11c in F4/80 gated cells. E) Immunostaining of F4/80 on eWAT section of mice fed a high fat diet alone (16 weeks) or in presence of Rosi for the last three weeks.</p

Free Fatty Acid treatment decreases adipocyte PPARγ expression.

<p>Differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes were treated with 300 µM and 500 µM of a mixture of saturated and unsaturated FFAs for 1–6 hours (A), or with 500 µM of individual FFAs for 3 hours (B) (ARA, arachidonic acid; LAU, lauric acid; LIN, linoleic, acid; MYR, myristic acid; OL, oleic acid). Cell lysates were then analyzed for PPARγ protein content by SDS-PAGE fractionation and immunoblotting using a monoclonal antibody that detects PPARγ1 and PPARγ2 isoforms. Densitometric analysis of PPARγ protein collected from multiple experiments is presented in the right panels (A and B) *P<0.05. C) IPMacs were treated for the indicated times with LPS (5 ng/ml) or FFAs mixture (500 µM) and PPARγ expression was quantified by QPCR. D) 3T3-L1 adipocytes were electroporated with plasmids encompassing parts of the mouse (m)PPARγ2 promoter (PNNf) or no promoter (pGL2) fused to the firefly luciferase gene, along with the beta-galactosidase plasmid. Cells were treated with the FA mixture or with OL and PAL, the two major FAs found in plasma and then lyzed. Luciferase and beta-galactosidase (for normalization) activities were assayed. # P<0.05 for pNNf vs pGL2; * P<0.05 for pNNf of veh-control vs FA treatment.</p

α/β-Hydrolase Domain Containing Protein 15 (ABHD15) – an Adipogenic Protein Protecting from Apoptosis

<div><p>Our knowledge about adipocyte metabolism and development is steadily growing, yet many players are still undefined. Here, we show that α/β-hydrolase domain containing protein 15 (Abhd15) is a direct and functional target gene of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), the master regulator of adipogenesis. In line, Abhd15 is mainly expressed in brown and white adipose tissue and strongly upregulated during adipogenesis in various murine and human cell lines. Stable knockdown of Abhd15 in 3T3-L1 cells evokes a striking differentiation defect, as evidenced by low lipid accumulation and decreased expression of adipocyte marker genes. In preconfluent cells, knockdown of Abhd15 leads to impaired proliferation, which is caused by apoptosis, as we see an increased SubG1 peak, caspase 3/7 activity, and BAX protein expression as well as a reduction in anti-apoptotic BCL-2 protein. Furthermore, apoptosis-inducing amounts of palmitic acid evoke a massive increase of Abhd15 expression, proposing an apoptosis-protecting role for ABHD15. On the other hand, in mature adipocytes physiological (i.e. non-apoptotic) concentrations of palmitic acid down-regulate Abhd15 expression. Accordingly, we found that the expression of Abhd15 in adipose tissue is reduced in physiological situations with high free fatty acid levels, like high-fat diet, fasting, and aging as well as in genetically obese mice. Collectively, our results position ABHD15 as an essential component in the development of adipocytes as well as in apoptosis, thereby connecting two substantial factors in the regulation of adipocyte number and size. Together with its intricate regulation by free fatty acids, ABHD15 might be an intriguing new target in obesity and diabetes research.</p> </div

Abhd15 is a direct and functional PPARγ target gene.

<p><b>A</b>. Genome organization around the Abhd15 transcription start side (TSS) of 3T3-L1 cells during differentiation with ChIP data of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) (day 6 and day 10) and CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein alpha (C/EBPα) (day 10) binding, and Pparγ-Retinoid X receptor (RXRα) direct repeat motif analysis. The data suggest putative PPARγ-RXRα binding ~990 bp and ~440 bp upstream of the Abhd15 TSS. <b>B</b>-<b>D</b>. Abhd15 mRNA levels of 3T3-L1 cells upon PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone (Rosi) treatments. Cells were treated with 1 µM Rosi (<b>B</b>) during differentiation, (<b>C</b>) for 12 and 24 hours on day 7 of differentiation, and (<b>D</b>) for 6, 12, and 24 hours before induction of differentiation, all leading to increased Abhd15 expression. <b>E</b>. Abhd15 mRNA expression in Pparγ -/- and Pparγ +/- mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Abhd15 is hardly expressed in Pparγ -/- MEFs and can only be further increased upon addition of Rosi (1 µM) in Pparγ +/- MEFs. <b>F</b>. Sequence map of the sequences containing either one (F2 and F3) or two (F1) of the putative PPARγ-RXRα binding sites, evaluated in figure A, used for the luciferase assay. <b>G</b>. The 3 regions of interest located upstream of the Abhd15 gene were cloned into luciferase reporter vectors (named pGL4.21-F1, pGL4.26-F2, pGL4.21-F3) and cotransfected with either Pparγ/Rxrα expressing vectors or an empty vector (pCMX) into Cos7 cells. The luciferase activity of pGL4.21-F1 and pGL4.21-F3, both containing the putative PPARγ-RXRα binding site ~440 bp upstream to the TSS, were significantly increased when compared to pCMX-transfected cells. Addition of Rosi to cells cotransfected with pGL4.21-F1 or pGL44.21-F3 and Pparγ/Rxrα, again significantly increased luciferase activity. Data is presented as mean ± SD from at least three independent experiments. Statistical significance was determined using the two-tailed Student’s t-test. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.</p

Abhd15 expression is regulated during adipogenesis and decreased by elevated free fatty acid levels.

<p><b>A</b>-<b>B</b>. Abhd15 mRNA expression is increased during adipocyte differentiation of (<b>A</b>) OP 9 cells, mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), and (<b>B</b>) human Simpson-Golabi-Behmel syndrome (SGBS) cells. <b>C</b>. Abhd15 mRNA is highly expressed in brown and white adipose tissue (BAT and WAT), to a lower extent in liver (Liv), and hardly in skeletal (SM) and cardiac muscle (CM) of wild-type mice in the fed state. <b>D</b>. Abhd15 mRNA expression is decreased in WAT and BAT of genetically obese mice (ob/ob) compared to wild type (wt) mice. <b>E</b>. Mice fed a high fat diet (HFD, 60% calories in fat) show a decreased Abhd15 mRNA expression in WAT already after 3 days, but still after 15 weeks on this diet. Additionally, aging strongly decreases Abhd15 mRNA levels. <b>F</b>. Abhd15 mRNA expression is regulated depending on the nutritional status in mouse tissues. Upon fasting, the expression is decreased in both BAT and WAT. <b>G</b>. Simulated fasting of fully differentiated 3T3-L1 cells (day 7 of differentiation) with IBMX (0.5 mM) and isoproterenol (10 µM) for 2 hours resulted in reduced Abhd15 mRNA expression. <b>H</b>. Treatment of fully differentiated 3T3-L1 cells (day 7 of differentiation) with palmitic acid (100 µM) strongly reduces Abhd15 mRNA expression. Data is presented as mean ± SD from at least three independent experiments. Statistical significance was determined using the two-tailed Student’s t-test. *p<0.05, **p<0.01.</p

Abhd15 expression is required for adipogenesis.

<p><b>A</b>-<b>D</b>. 3T3-L1 cells were infected with lentiviral particles coding for Abhd15 shRNA (Abhd15_sil) or using a non-target shRNA as control (ntc), selected for puromycin resistance, expanded as a mixed population and differentiated. <b>A</b>. Silencing efficiency during adipogenesis of two knock-down lentiviruses against Abhd15, determined by qPCR assay. <b>B</b>. Protein was harvested at day 4 of differentiation of control (ntc) and Abhd15-silenced 3T3-L1 cells (Abhd15_sil1) and subjected to western blotting using the anti-Abhd15 antibody. β-actin served as loading control. Abhd15 protein expression is decreased in Abhd15-silenced 3T3-L1 cells compared to control cells. n=2 C. Silencing of Abhd15 impairs adipogenesis, indicated by the strongly decreased amount of neutral lipids on day 7 of differentiation, stained with Oil red O. <b>D</b>. Stable silencing of Abhd15 in 3T3-L1 cells showed high influences on the expression levels of various important adipogenic genes on day 5 of differentiation (Cebpα, Pparγ, fatty acid binding protein 4 (Fabp4), fatty acid synthase (Fasn)). <b>E</b>. Transient silencing of Abhd15 by electroporation of siRNAs on day 8 of differentiation did not show any effects onto the mRNA levels of adipogenic genes in fully differentiated 3T3-L1 cells (day 10). Data is presented as mean ± SD from at least three independent experiments if not otherwise stated. Statistical significance was determined using the two-tailed Student’s t-test. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.</p