Permanent Campaigning: A Meta-Analysis and Framework for Measurement

Permanent campaigning emerged as a concept in the 1970s in studies of US politics but is now recognized as a universal phenomenon. Despite its long history, there has been no attempt to build a holistic picture of the elements that constitute a permanent campaign. Generally, researchers focus on tactical elements, situating their use within an overall strategy, but there is a lack of a broader methodological framework for holistically measuring adherence to the permanent campaigning. This article presents results of a meta-analysis of relevant research to provide a framework to understand how permanent campaigning is practiced. Our study showed there were three reasonably discrete forms of campaigning activities that had been identified: those in which permanent campaign strategies are related to capacity building and strategy; a second, in which permanent campaigning relates to paid and owned media; and a third in which earned media is the main focus. In mapping these studies, we identify the common features of permanent campaigning, identifying strong and weak indicators and the extent these are employed by the government, parties, or elected representatives and within which political systems: parliamentarism or presidentialism. Our framework can be applied in future comparative research to understand trends in political communication

Sleep Hygiene Practices in Two Community Dwelling Samples of Older Adults

Study Objectives: Common sleep hygiene practices were examined in 2 community-based samples of older adults to determine which practices differentiated 4 sleep subgroups: noncomplainers without insomnia symptoms, complainers without insomnia symptoms, noncomplainers with insomnia symptoms, and complainers with insomnia symptoms. Design: Two weeks of sleep diaries provided napping and bed/out-of-bed time variability data. A retrospective questionnaire provided data on caffeine, cigarette, and alcohol usage. Recruitment involved random digit dialing (Sample 1) and advertisements (Sample 2). Setting: Memphis, TN area (Sample 1); Gainesville, FL area (Sample 2). Participants: 310 individuals 60-96 years (Sample 1); 103 individuals 60–89 years (Sample 2). Inventions: N/A. Measurements and Results: Older individuals with sleep complaints did not report engaging in poorer sleep hygiene practices than those without complaints with the exception of frequency of napping. For Sample 1 only, complainers reported napping on 1.5-2.0 more days per week than non-complainers. Sleep subgroups in both samples did not differ for the other sleep hygiene practices studied. Conclusions: Overall, sleep hygiene behaviors did not differentiate the 4 sleep subgroups. The efficacy of sleep hygiene as a therapy for late life insomnia appears questionable in this context. Both complaining sleep subgroups napped more frequently than both noncomplaining subgroups in Sample 1. Additional research is needed to clarify the clinical implications of nap frequency as these results did not replicate in Sample 2, and the impact of napping on nighttime sleep remains unclear. Inconsistencies with previous research in younger samples support the need for more research specifically targeting older individuals’ sleep patterns and behaviors