Gender conflicts in the courts of the early Venezuelan republic, Caracas, 1811-1840

Women in early republican Caracas pursued their quest for equality before the law through their numerous actions in court. The new republic's constitution of 1811 adopted the « Rights of Men », and provided for equality and citizenship to Venezuelans. However Spanish civil codes which supported class, race, and gender distinctions still operated in the new republic. This was the basis for two contending sets of rights : those of the padres de familia (male household heads), who tried to maintain their ancient legal prerogatives, and those of the ciudadanas (female citizens) who expected some type of material reciprocity in their relationships with men. Elite women openly used their rights as citizens to defend their property, while lower-class women made persistent claims to defend their individual rights. Most of the sampled cases (1835-1840) came from the lower classes (72 percent) and most of the cases were filed by women themselves (51 percent).Les femmes de Caracas, au début de la république, luttèrent pour leur égalité juridique au moyen de fréquentes actions judiciaires. La nouvelle constitution républicaine de 1811 adopta les « Droits de l'Homme » et établit l'égalité et la citoyenneté des Vénézuéliens. Cependant, le droit civil espagnol, fondé sur des distinctions de classe, de race et de sexe, resta en vigueur sous le nouveau régime. Il en résultait une opposition entre deux ensembles de droits : ceux des padres de familia (hommes chefs de famille) cherchant à préserver leurs anciennes prérogatives et ceux des ciudadanas (citoyennes) qui escomptaient une certaine réciprocité, au plan matériel, dans leurs relations avec les hommes. Les femmes appartenant aux élites sociales usaient ouvertement de leurs droits civiques pour défendre leurs biens, tandis que les femmes des classes populaires défendaient avec insistance leurs droits individuels. La majorité de l'échantillon étudié (1835-1840) était issue des classes populaires (72 %) et la plupart des actions (51 %) étaient engagées par les femmes elles-mêmes

Passado e presente nas relações Colômbia-Estados Unidos: a estratégia de internacionalização do conflito armado colombiano e as diretrizes da política externa norte-americana Past and present in the Colombia-United States relations: the strategy of internationalization of the Colombian armed conflict and the guidelines of North American foreign policy

Este artigo tem como objetivo analisar a dinâmica das relações entre Colômbia e EUA, com ênfase no governo de Álvaro Uribe (2002-...). Para tanto, são examinadas a estratégia de internacionalização do conflito armado colombiano e os aspectos da intervenção dos EUA mediante o Plano Colômbia. Como conclusão, o trabalho sugere que as recentes mudanças políticas nos EUA têm causado impacto nas diretrizes das relações das relações entre EUA e Colômbia.<br>This article aims to analyze the dynamics of the relationship between Colombia and United States, with emphasis on the Uribe Government. For this purpose, the internationalization strategy of the Colombian armed conflict and the aspects of the U.S. intervention under Plan Colombia were examined. In the final analysis, this paper suggests that recent political changes in the United States have impacted the guidance for U.S. - Colombia relations