Early Childhood Father Absence and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescent Girls from a UK Cohort:The Mediating Role of Early Menarche

# The Author(s) 2014. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract Absence of the biological father in early childhood has been linked to depressive symptoms in mid-adolescent girls. Earlier studies have linked father absence to early timing of menarche, and early menarche is a risk factor for increased depressive symptoms in adolescence. No studies, however, have examined whether the association between father ab-sence and depressive symptomsmay be explained by the early onset of menarche. This study investigated whether age at menarche mediates the association between father absence in early childhood (birth to 5 years) and depressive symptoms in adolescent girls aged 14 years. The study sample comprised 7056 girls from a large UK birth cohort (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children) who provided data on age at onset of menarche and depressive symptoms assessed using the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire at 14 years. Mothers provided data on father absence from the birth of the study child up to 10 years. Using structural equation modelling, we found that 15 % of the total estimated associ-ation between father absence in early childhood and depres-sive symptoms at 14 years was explained by early age at menarche. In addition to the mediated effect, father absence was linked to an 11 % increase in depressive symptoms in adolescence. The findings suggest that early age at menarche is one of the pathways linking early childhood father absence and depressive symptoms in mid-adolescent girls. Preventive strategies could be targeting young girls at risk for depressive symptoms as a function of stressful family factors (e.g., bio-logical father absence) and earlier menarche

Exposure to socioeconomic adversity in early life and risk of depression at 18 years: The mediating role of locus of control.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have linked exposure to early socioeconomic adversity to depression, but the mechanisms of this association are not well understood. Locus of control (LoC), an individual's control-related beliefs, has been implicated as a possible mechanism, however, longitudinal evidence to support this is lacking. METHODS: The study sample comprised 8803 participants from a UK cohort, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Indicators of early socioeconomic adversity were collected from the antenatal period to 5 years and modelled as a latent factor. Depression was assessed using the Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised (CIS-R) at 18 years. LoC was assessed with the Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External (CNSIE) scale at 16 years. RESULTS: Using structural equation modelling, we found that 34% of the total estimated association between early socioeconomic adversity and depression at 18 years was explained by external LoC at 16 years. There was weak evidence of a direct pathway from early socioeconomic adversity to depression after accounting for the indirect effect via external locus of control. Socioeconomic adversity was associated with more external LoC, which, in turn, was associated with depression. LIMITATIONS: Attrition may have led to an underestimation of the direct and indirect effect sizes in the complete case analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that external LoC in adolescence is one of the factors mediating the link between early adversity and depression at 18 years. Cognitive interventions that seek to modify maladaptive control beliefs in adolescence may be effective in reducing risk of depression following early life adversity

The association between characteristics of fathering in infancy and depressive symptoms in adolescence:A UK birth cohort study

AbstractEvidence suggests that the quality of fathers’ parenting has an impact on psychological outcomes during adolescence, but less is known about which aspects of fathering have the strongest effects. This study, using the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), considers which paternal attitudes towards and experiences of child care in infancy are most strongly associated with depressive symptoms in adolescence, and whether father effects are independent of maternal influence and other risk factors. Primary exposures were fathers’ attitudes to and experiences of child care at 8 weeks, 8 months and 21 months coded as continuous scores; the primary outcome was self-reported depressive symptoms at 16 years (Short Moods and Feelings Questionnaire score ≥11). Multivariable logistic regression models showed reasonably strong evidence that parental reports indicating potential paternal abuse when children were toddlers were associated with a 22% increased odds of depressive symptoms at age 16 (odds ratio [OR] 1.22 [95% CI 1.11, 1.34] per SD). There was some evidence for an interaction with social class (p=0.04): for children living in higher social class households (professional, managerial and technical classes), an increase in the potential abuse scale increased the odds of depressive symptoms by 31% (OR 1.31 [1.13, 1.53] per SD), whereas there was no effect in the lower social class categories. The potential paternal abuse measure needs to be validated and research is needed on what circumstances predict anger and frustration with child care. Effective interventions are needed to help fathers cope better with parenting stress

Parental monitoring longitudinally associates with reduced risk of adolescent mental health problems

Introduction: Prior research examining the impact of parenting on adolescent mental health has been limited by the use of cross-sectional designs and small or clinical samples. Methods: We used data (N = 6,212) from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a UK-based birth cohort study. Results: We found longitudinal evidence that parental monitoring in late childhood/early adolescence (ages 9.5–13.5), but not the emotional quality of the parent-child relationship, reduces the likelihood of offspring major depressive disorder (Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.64, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 0.56 – 0.76), anxiety disorder (OR = 0.60, 95% CI = 0.53 – 0.69), and self-harm (OR = 0.65, 95% CI = 0.57 – 0.75) at age 18. Associations did not vary according to adolescent sex. Discussion: Findings indicate that parenting monitoring may be important for later adolescent mental health. Future research is needed to understand why this aspect of parenting is associated with better adolescent outcomes

The association between locus of control and psychopathology:A Cross-Cohort Comparison Between a UK (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children) and a Japanese (Tokyo Teen Cohort) Cohort

Background: An external locus of control (externality) is associated with poorer psychopathology in individualist cultures, but associations are reported to be weaker in collectivist cultures where an external style is less maladaptive. We investigated the prospective association between externality and psychotic-like experiences (PLE) and depressive symptoms (DS) and compared the strength of associations between a UK and a Japanese cohort. Method: Cross-cultural cohort study of a UK (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children) and a Japanese cohort (Tokyo Teen Cohort). Externality was assessed using the Children's Nowicki and Strickland Internal, External Scale and DS using the Short Moods and Feelings Questionnaire in both cohorts, PLE were assessed with the Psychosis-Like Experiences Questionnaire (ALSPAC), and the Adolescent Psychotic-Like Symptom Screener (TTC). Associations were investigated using multivariable regression models and bivariate regression models to compare the strength of associations. Results: Mean externality in both childhood and adolescence was higher in ALSPAC than in the TTC. Childhood externality was associated with PLE in late childhood and adolescence in both cohorts and adolescent externality was associated with PLE in young adulthood in the ALSPAC cohort. There was a more mixed pattern of association between externality and DS scores. There was little evidence of any differences in the strength of associations between externality and different psychopathologies, or between cohorts. In ALSPAC adolescent externality and early adult psychopathology were more strongly associated than childhood externality and adolescent and early adult psychopathology. There was no evidence that change in externality between childhood and adolescence was associated with new onset PLE or DS in early adulthood. Conclusion: An external locus of control is associated with poor mental health regardless of cultural context

Maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and parental vocalisation behaviours in infancy: findings from UK-based birth cohort

Background: Both maternal and paternal postnatal depression (PND) are associated with increased risk of less optimal offspring developmental outcomes. Early exposure to differences in maternal and paternal vocalisation behaviours associated with maternal and paternal PND may be important in this relationship. However, little research has captured vocalisation patterns at home without researchers present. Objectives This study sought to examine the associations between maternal and paternal PND and various aspects of parental vocalisation behaviours. Methods: Mothers (n = 104) and fathers (n = 34) of six-months old infants from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children Generation-2 (ALSPAC-G2) provided video footage of mother- and father-infant interactions filmed at home using the head-worn video cameras (headcams) without the need for researchers to be present. Twenty-five mother-infant and father-infant interactions were coded on multiple aspects of parental and infant vocalisation behaviours using the micro-behavioural observational coding system. Parental (PND) was measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS; total score). Results: Frequencies and duration of vocalisation behaviours were similar in mothers and fathers. However, there was an indication that fathers demonstrated higher frequency and duration of commands, exclamations and ironic/sarcastic tone, and criticisms compared to mothers, while mothers engaged in more teaching compared to fathers. Linear regression models indicated that maternal and paternal PND were not associated with the majority of vocalisation behaviours. However, there were some specific patterns observed, mostly related to the emotional tone of the vocalisations. Higher levels of maternal PND were associated with lower frequency of speech in a neutral tone, frequency and duration of use of humour, and increased duration of speech in a positive tone. Higher levels of paternal PND were associated with higher mean duration of speech, infant-directed speech, higher frequency and duration of laughing, and increased duration of speech using questions and encouragement. Conclusion: These findings extend existing research by investigating the associations between maternal and paternal PND and a wide range of vocalisation behaviours captured and coded using innovative methods and in a more ecologically valid way than previous studies

‘Asking for help’:a qualitative interview study exploring the experiences of interpersonal counselling (IPC) compared to low-intensity cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for women with depression during pregnancy.

Abstract Background Treating depression early in pregnancy can improve health outcomes for women and their children. Current low-intensity psychological therapy for perinatal depression is a supported self-help approach informed by cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) principles. Interpersonal counselling (IPC) may be a more appropriate low-intensity talking therapy for addressing the problems experienced by pregnant women with depression. A randomised feasibility trial (ADAGIO) has compared the acceptability of offering IPC for mild-moderate antenatal depression in routine NHS services compared to low-intensity CBT. This paper reports on a nested qualitative study which explored women’s views and expectations of therapy, experiences of receiving IPC, and Psychological Wellbeing Practitioners (PWPs - junior mental health workers) views of delivering the low-intensity therapy. Methods A qualitative study design using in-depth semi-structured interviews and focus groups. Thirty-two pregnant women received talking therapy within the ADAGIO trial; 19 contributed to the interview study from July 2019 to January 2020; 12 who had IPC and seven who had CBT. All six PWPs trained in IPC took part in a focus group or interview. Interviews and focus groups were recorded, transcribed, anonymised, and analysed using thematic methods. Results Pregnant women welcomed being asked about their mental health in pregnancy and having the chance to have support in accessing therapy. The IPC approach helped women to identify triggers for depression and explored relationships using strategies such as ‘promoting self-awareness through mood timelines’, ‘identifying their circles of support’, ‘developing communication skills and reciprocity in relationships’, and ‘asking for help’. PWPs compared how IPC differed from their prior experiences of delivering low-intensity CBT. They reported that IPC included a useful additional emotional component which was relevant to the perinatal period. Conclusions Identifying and treating depression in pregnancy is important for the future health of both mother and child. Low-intensity perinatal-specific talking therapies delivered by psychological wellbeing practitioners in routine NHS primary care services in England are acceptable to pregnant women with mild-moderate depression. The strategies used in IPC to manage depression, including identifying triggers for low mood, and communicating the need for help, may be particularly appropriate for the perinatal period. Trial registration ISRCTN 11513120. 02/05/2019