Evaluating the impact of Mexico’s drug policy reforms on people who inject drugs in Tijuana, B.C., Mexico, and San Diego, CA, United States: a binational mixed methods research agenda

Background: Policymakers and researchers seek answers to how liberalized drug policies affect people who inject drugs (PWID). In response to concerns about the failing “war on drugs,” Mexico recently implemented drug policy reforms that partially decriminalized possession of small amounts of drugs for personal use while promoting drug treatment. Recognizing important epidemiologic, policy, and socioeconomic differences between the United States—where possession of any psychoactive drugs without a prescription remains illegal—and Mexico—where possession of small quantities for personal use was partially decriminalized, we sought to assess changes over time in knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and infectious disease profiles among PWID in the adjacent border cities of San Diego, CA, USA, and Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico. Methods: Based on extensive binational experience and collaboration, from 2012–2014 we initiated two parallel, prospective, mixed methods studies: Proyecto El Cuete IV in Tijuana (n = 785) and the STAHR II Study in San Diego (n = 575). Methods for sampling, recruitment, and data collection were designed to be compatible in both studies. All participants completed quantitative behavioral and geographic assessments and serological testing (HIV in both studies; hepatitis C virus and tuberculosis in STAHR II) at baseline and four semi-annual follow-up visits. Between follow-up assessment visits, subsets of participants completed qualitative interviews to explore contextual factors relating to study aims and other emergent phenomena. Planned analyses include descriptive and inferential statistics for quantitative data, content analysis and other mixed-methods approaches for qualitative data, and phylogenetic analysis of HIV-positive samples to understand cross-border transmission dynamics. Results: Investigators and research staff shared preliminary findings across studies to provide feedback on instruments and insights regarding local phenomena. As a result, recruitment and data collection procedures have been implemented successfully, demonstrating the importance of binational collaboration in evaluating the impact of structural-level drug policy reforms on the behaviors, health, and wellbeing of PWID across an international border. Conclusions: Our prospective, mixed methods approach allows each study to be responsive to emerging phenomena within local contexts while regular collaboration promotes sharing insights across studies. The strengths and limitations of this approach may serve as a guide for other evaluations of harm reduction policies internationally

Impact of COVID-19 on tuberculosis detection and treatment in Baja California, México

In 2020, Mexico reported the lowest tuberculosis (TB) incidence on record, and it is unclear to what extent COVID-19 has impacted TB surveillance, diagnosis, and treatment. It is important to understand COVID-19's impact in Baja California (BC), which has the highest TB burden in Mexico. With the increasing number of migrants and asylum seekers arriving in BC, limited resources and crowded living conditions increase the risk of TB transmission. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of COVID-19 on TB diagnosis and treatment in BC. We were also interested in health disparities experienced by migrants in BC. We conducted a mixed methods analysis using quantitative surveillance data obtained from the Mexico National TB Program (NTP) and qualitative data collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with TB program directors and personnel in BC's four provincial health jurisdictions. Compared to the year prior, surveillance data from March 2020 - February 2021 revealed that TB incidence in BC declined by 30.9% and favorable TB outcomes (TB cure or treatment completion) declined by 49.8%. Elucidating differences by migrant status was complicated by the lack of standardized collection of migrant status by the NTP. Qualitative analysis revealed that TB diagnostic and treatment supplies and services became limited and disproportionately accessible across jurisdictions since the pandemic began; however, favorable adaptations were also reported, such as increased telemedicine use and streamlined care referral processes. Participants shared that migrant status is susceptible to misclassification and that TB care is difficult due to the transitory nature of migrants. This study did not identify major differences in TB service delivery or access between migrants and non-migrants in BC; however, migrant status was frequently missing. COVID-19 has overwhelmed health systems worldwide, disrupting timely TB diagnostic and treatment services, and potentially caused underdiagnosis of TB in BC. TB programs in BC should quickly restore essential services that were disrupted by COVID-19 while identifying and preserving beneficial program adaptations, such as telemedicine and streamlined care referral processes. Improved methods for documenting migrant status of TB cases are also needed

Latent Tuberculosis among Persons at Risk for Infection with HIV, Tijuana, Mexico

Interventions that prevent HIV transmission and TB reactivation are needed

Change in Patient Comfort Using Mobile Phones Following the Use of an App to Monitor Tuberculosis Treatment Adherence: Longitudinal Study (Preprint)

BACKGROUND As mHealth apps proliferate, it is necessary for patients to feel capable and comfortable using devices that run them. However, limited research is available on changes in comfort level before and after the use of an mHealth app. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to determine whether patients with tuberculosis who used an mHealth app called Video Directly Observed Therapy (VDOT) to monitor their antituberculosis treatment became more comfortable using mobile phones after the intervention and to identify factors associated with change in comfort. METHODS We analyzed data from a longitudinal study assessing the feasibility and acceptability of the VDOT app among patients receiving antituberculosis treatment from public health departments in San Diego, San Francisco, and New York City. Comfort levels on six domains of mobile phone use (making phone calls, taking pictures, recording videos, text messaging, internet and email use on the phone) were measured on a 10-point scale (1=very uncomfortable; 10=very comfortable) at the start and end of treatment using VDOT via telephone interviews. The main outcomes were change in comfort level on each domain (recoded as binary measures) and an overall change score (sum of individual measures). Linear and logistic regression analyses were performed to assess whether sociodemographics, risk factors, and VDOT perceptions were associated with change of comfort measures. RESULTS Among 120 participants with complete data, mean age was 39.8 years (SD 14.8, range 18-87 years), 46.7% (56/120) were female, and 76.7% (92/120) were foreign born. The combined comfort level at baseline was high overall (mean 48.8, SD 14.2, interquartile range 43.0-60.0) and the mean comfort score increased by 1.92 points at follow-up (P=.07). Statistically significant increases in comfort on individual domains included taking pictures (P=.02) and recording videos (P=.002). Females were more likely to have increased comfort in using the internet on the phone compared to males (odds ratio [OR] 3.03, 95% CI 1.08-8.52, P=.04). Participants who worked less hours per week were more likely to have increased comfort recording videos although this did not meet statistical significance (OR 1.03, 95% CI 1.00-1.05, P=.06). CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that, despite a high level of comfort using mobile phones at baseline, experience using the VDOT app was associated with increased comfort using mobile phone features. Additional research involving participants with lower baseline mobile phone experience is needed. An implication of these findings is that as patients begin to use mHealth apps for one health condition, they could acquire skills and confidence to more quickly adapt to using mHealth apps for other conditions

Comparison of Three Popular Methods for Recruiting Young Persons Who Inject Drugs for Interventional Studies.

Persons who inject drugs (PWID) are at risk for adverse health outcomes as a result of their drug use, and the resulting social stigma makes this a difficult population to reach for interventions aimed at reducing morbidity and mortality. During our study of adult PWID aged ≤40 years living in San Diego during 2009 and 2010, we compared three different sampling methods: respondent-driven sampling (RDS), venue-based sampling at one syringe exchange program (SEP), and street-based outreach. We compared demographic, socioeconomic, health, and behavioral factors and tested participants for HIV, hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV) and compared across the three methods. Overall, 561 (74.8%) of the targeted 750 PWID were enrolled. Venue-based convenience sampling enrolled 96% (242/250) of the targeted participants, followed closely by street-based outreach with 92% (232/250) recruited. While RDS yielded the fewest recruits, producing only 35% (87/250) of the expected participants, those recruited through RDS were more likely to be female, more racially diverse, and younger

Association of Self-Reported Abscess With High-Risk Injection-Related Behaviors Among Young Persons Who Inject Drugs.

Abscess is a common source of morbidity for people who inject drugs. We used data from the Study to Assess Hepatitis C Risk to measure prevalence of abscess and identify factors associated with the history of abscess. Of 541 participants, 388 (72%) were male and 149 (28%) were female. Almost half (n = 258, 48%) reported ever having an abscess. Persons who inject drugs with an abscess history were significantly more likely to have more injection partners (p = .01), inject heroin daily (p < .05), and share cookers (p = .001) and less likely to report using new syringes with each injection (p = .02). Most reported self-treating their last abscess and increasing drug use when having an abscess. High-risk injection-related activity was associated not only with infections such as HIV and hepatitis C virus but also with abscess. Nurses should screen patients presenting with abscess for high-risk practices and provide prevention education

Individual and socio-environmental factors associated with unsafe injection practices among young adult injection drug users in San Diego.

Unsafe injection practices significantly increase the risk of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection among injection drug users (IDUs). We examined individual and socio-environmental factors associated with unsafe injection practices in young adult IDUs in San Diego, California. Of 494 IDUs, 46.9 % reported receptive syringe sharing and 68.8 % sharing drug preparation paraphernalia in the last 3 months. Unsafe injection practices were associated with increased odds of having friends who injected drugs with used syringes, injecting with friends or sexual partners, and injecting heroin. Perceived high susceptibility to HIV and perceived barriers to obtaining sterile syringes were associated with increased odds of receptive syringe sharing, but not with sharing injection paraphernalia. Over half the IDUs reported unsafe injection practices. Our results suggest that personal relationships might influence IDUs' perceptions that dictate behavior. Integrated interventions addressing individual and socio-environmental factors are needed to promote safe injection practices in this population

Cross-border injection drug use and HIV and hepatitis C virus seropositivity among people who inject drugs in San Diego, California.

BackgroundThe prevalence of HIV and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) are significantly lower among people who inject drugs (PWID) in San Diego, CA, USA compared with PWID in Tijuana, Mexico, located directly across the border. We investigated associations between cross-border injection drug use (IDU), HIV and HCV seroprevalence and engagement in injecting risk behaviours while on each side of the border.MethodsUsing baseline interviews and serologic testing data from STAHR II, a longitudinal cohort study of PWID in San Diego, bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses examined associations between recent (past six months) cross-border IDU and HIV and HCV antibody seropositivity, socio-demographics, drug use characteristics, and participants' connections to, and perceptions about Mexico. Chi-squared tests and McNemar tests examined associations between cross-border IDU and injecting risk behaviours.ResultsOf the 567 participants (93% U.S.-born, 73% male, median age 45 years), 86 (15%) reported recent cross-border IDU. Cross-border IDU was not associated with HIV (OR: 0.85, 95% CI: 0.37-1.95) or HCV seropositivity (OR: 1.01, 95% CI: 0.62-1.65). Age, identifying as Hispanic or Latino/a, and being concerned about risk of violence when travelling to Mexico were independently associated with decreased odds of recent cross-border IDU. Injecting cocaine at least weekly, having ever lived in Mexico and knowing PWID who reside in Mexico were associated with increased odds of recent cross-border IDU. PWID who reported cross-border IDU were significantly less likely to engage in receptive needle sharing, equipment sharing, and public injection while in Mexico compared with in San Diego (all p<0.001).ConclusionPrevalence of HIV and HCV infection was similar among PWID who had and had not injected in Mexico, possibly due to practising safer injecting while in Mexico. Research is needed to elucidate contextual factors enabling U.S. PWID to inject safely while in Mexico