Pasture measurements and bio-economic analyses to assess effects of climate, grazing pressure and pasture rundown on soil carbon and returns from legume-based sown pastures in the Condamine region of Southern Queensland. Final Report on project AOTGR1-137 'Increasing soil carbon in degraded cropping and grazing land'

The Condamine catchment has been identified as a key area in Australia where there is potential to build soil carbon. There are approximately 1 million hectares of degraded crop and grazing lands in the region that could be potentially improved through establishment of sown pastures, particularly legume-based pastures that have capacity to add nitrogen, lift productivity and build soil carbon. This document provides a final report on several sub-components for the Condamine Alliance project “Increasing soil carbon in degraded cropping and grazing Land (AOTGR1-137)”. The overall objectives of this project were to measure, assess and communicate the impact and feasibility of practices for increasing soil carbon sequestration in cropping and grazing land in the Condamine catchment. Field studies from July 2012 to March 2015 at nine trial sites tested the value of returning crop land to pasture, renovation of pastures and the use of manure and inorganic fertilizer. As part of the overall project, the objectives addressed in this report focus on bio-economic analyses to assess the value of sown pastures in the Condamine region in terms of their capacity to build soil carbon and provide significant economic benefits to industry. The influence of seasonal conditions, land type and management were considered. This included the effects of grazing pressure, manure, fertilizer and importantly the use of legumes. A sown pastures version of the GRASP grazing systems model was used to estimate the effects of season and management on pasture growth and condition, beef production, economic returns, soil carbon sequestration and green-house gas emissions. Nitrogen available for pasture growth was a key component of the model concerning effects of pasture rundown and the influence of legumes. Potential effects of other nutrient limitations particularly phosphorous were recognised but not included in simulation analyses. Soil tests and pasture measurements of net primary production from exclosures and pasture yield/composition from grazed paddocks at the trial sites were used to calibrate and test the modelling process. The sub-tropical sub-humid inland climate of the Condamine region is favourable for growing sub-tropical grass-legume sown pastures in most years. The long-term average rainfall for the region is 672 mm. Weather conditions during the trial period were variable with several extended periods of hot and dry drought conditions; particularly in 2013 and 2014. The modelling and simulation studies were an important tool for overcoming the influences of climate variability on results, as well as reasonable inferences due to the short term duration of the project. The mean observed value of soil carbon (0-30 cm) across all trial sites was 1.13%. Values ranged from 0.63 to 0.88 % carbon (31 to 35 t/ha) on light sandy soils of the Brigalow and Alluvial plains to an average of 1.68 % carbon (52 t/ha) for the black cracking clays of the Basalt uplands with some values up to 2.16%. The mean annual growth of pastures across all sites, pastures, grazing pressures and climatic conditions was estimated to be 3076 kg/ha. This mean was substantially higher on the more fertile clay soils of the region’s Basalt Uplands (3898 kg/ha) but lower on less fertile loam soils of Alluvial Plains (2648 kg/ha) and the sandstone derived soils of the Brigalow Uplands (2708 kg/ha). The optimum commercial grazing pressure in terms of maximum economic return per hectare was estimated to be 25 to 30% utilisation of pasture growth and this was consistent across all trial sites and land types. Lower utilisation levels were estimated to increase live weight gains per head but this reduced overall economic returns. Higher utilisation levels increased short-term economic gain but were likely to cause detrimental effects on pasture condition if persistently used, and also reduce live weight gains per head. This led to lower gross margins and would ultimately lead to reduced soil carbon. Use of legume-based sown pastures in the GRASP simulation experiments was estimated to maximise economic returns at all sites. At the optimum grazing pressure the mean gross margin across all sites of legume-based sown pasture was $78.60/ha compared to$44.50/ha and $40.50/ha respectively for sown grass pastures and native pasture. Soil carbon sequestration rates were estimated from simulation modelling to be much higher in the first decade after planting a sown pasture than in later decades. This reflected changes in pasture productivity associated with pasture rundown and the progress of soil carbon levels towards new equilibrium conditions. In 50 year simulations (repeated for four different time periods at each site), the mean carbon sequestration of sown grass pastures for the first decade was 459 kg/ha/year compared with 10, 15 and -36 kg/ha/year over the last three decades. Grass-legume pastures had the highest carbon sequestration rates. They were estimated to sequester an average of 595 kg/ha/year for the first decade after sowing and 113 for the second decade. This was followed by an average of 32 kg/ha/year over the last three decades. Cattle methane emissions were calculated on the basis of dry matter intake. Estimates from GRASP simulations showed that sown pastures should help to reduce green-house gas emissions because: • the additional mean annual soil carbon sequestered by sown grass pastures (relative to native pasture) was 412 kg CO2e /ha and this was substantially more than the corresponding increase in methane emissions (58 kg CO2e/ha) due to higher stocking rates • the difference was greater for sown grass-legume pastures. Legume-based sown pastures increased carbon sequestration relative to native pasture by 1411 kg CO2e /ha compared with the much lower increase in methane emissions of 127 kg CO2e /ha. Nitrous oxide emissions as CO2e were estimated from legumes (due to nitrogen fixation) and from livestock urine and faeces due to increased stocking rate on sown pastures. These estimates were low in comparison to carbon sequestration and were lower than methane emissions. Key messages communicated to producers at a series of field days in March 2015 were: • Degraded crop and grazing lands are improved through establishment of legume-based pastures with bonus payoffs in production, carrying capacity, economic returns, and GHG emissions and sequestration rates. • Sown pastures are usually most productive in the first few years after planting and then gradually decline in productivity (known as 'pasture rundown' ) in the following years because of nutrient limitations mainly nitrogen • Maintaining legumes in pastures increases soil nitrogen, pasture growth and cattle production. • Legumes can help to offset pasture rundown. • While droughts cause significant losses in some years, nitrogen is limiting in most years. • Stocking rates should aim to utilise 25 to 30 % of pasture growth. • Increased pasture production builds soil carbon which improves soil health. The study has highlighted several concepts that include the following: • Pasture rundown is a consistent feature of sown pastures in grazing systems and therefore needs to be taken into account in farm management planning processes and carbon sequestration rate calculations • Legume contributions of nitrogen to foster additional grass growth were important at all sites to either offset or overcome the effects of pasture rundown. They enable production to plateau at a higher level than grass only pastures, which emphasises the importance of legumes in sown pastures. • Legumes are a relatively minor cost when establishing a sown pasture but they contribute greatly to the profitability of sown pastures. This highlights the value of developing technologies to improve the reliability and resilience of agricultural practices to successfully establish and maintain palatable legume-based sown pastures. Lucerne was demonstrated to be a highly successful legume for pastures on the heavier clay soils of the Condamine region, however, more summer active legumes might give additional benefits in the regions summer dominant rainfall climate. The summer growing legumes, shrubby stylos, particularly Caatinga stylo, desmanthus, Wynn cassia, fine-stem stylo and leucaena are options that should be considered. The sown pastures version of the GRASP model has proved to be a useful tool in several ways. Firstly, it provided a mechanism to integrate information from the trial sites and elsewhere which was then used to interpolate and extrapolate data across sites, time periods and levels of output relevant to industry. Secondly, the simulation results are providing industry with information for discussion that would be otherwise not available, and thirdly GRASP and the sown pastures version of GRASP are providing a platform that may well be useful to other projects. The Condamine Catchment is a highly productive agricultural region and this study has shown that it has the potential to significantly increase soil carbon over a large area with legume-based pastures. The region stands out as an area in Australia to continue work to demonstrate, test the value and seek adoption of sown pastures. Therefore it is recommended that further work be conducted in this field to work with the farming community in planned extension programs to demonstrate the advantages of legume-based pastures for increasing productivity, building soil carbon and improving economic returns. This work should integrate field studies, analyses and communications that emphasise farming practices that help to overcome risks including the risks that are linked with agronomy, grazing management, financial issues and climate variability. The need for this work to continue is accentuated by the continuing rise of carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and resulting effects on rising global temperatures and increased climate variability, and also to clarify issues concerning the storage of carbon in soils as a greenhouse gas abatement strategy

Developing and implementing grains best management practices for managing climate change and climate variability. Final technical report to Agforce Queensland on Aust. Govt Dept Agric, Fisheries and Forestry, FarmReady Project GMS – 0506

The 'Managing Climate Risk' module developed in this project aims to improve sustainable and profitable grains production in the Northern Grains Region through a needs-based education program. It is a significant addition to the Grains ‘Best Management Practice’ (BMP) program developed in Central Queensland that empowers grain growers with the capacity to assess their current management practices against a set of minimum industry standards for BMP, and to then identify a suite of actions to improve farm production practices. A suite of 24 minimum BMP standards for managing the variability of seasonal conditions and longer-term changes in climate are considered in the module’s 4 areas: (i) linking climate and crop production, (ii) risk management principles, framework and process, (iii) farming tactics and strategies for managing climate risks, and (iv) managerial skills. These minimum BMP standards were ratified by industry reference panels in southern and central Queensland, and were considered by 87 grain growers attending 14 workshops from Narrabri in NSW to Clermont in Central Queensland, and 27 grain industry consultants, researchers and extension officers at three professional development workshops. The most important climate risks to manage as perceived by grain farmers were found to be low and variable rainfall, and catastrophic events such as drought, intense storms, flood and unseasonal severe frost. Managing opportunities such as the 'perfect' weather for grain production and other risks such as heat waves, windy conditions wet weather impacts on pests and pathogens were also rated as important. Developing skills to address strategic and tactical operations at paddock, whole-farm and off-farm levels were identified as central to effective management of climate risk. Most growers considered their current agronomic practices for managing climate risk were either 'level with' or 'above' the industry minimum BMP standard (19% and 75% of growers respectively), and very few growers assessed their current practices as 'below' the minimum BMP standard. Making best use of continuously updated historical weather records and skills to assess current weather patterns, seasonal forecasts and long-range climate change forecasts were seen as priorities. Further priorities for management included the use of a robust risk management framework and process as defined by the Australian Standards for Risk Management. However, a significant proportion of growers considered their existing practices were 'below' the minimum industry BMP standard for risk management (48%), risk assessment (31%), record keeping (39%) and business planning (12%). Risk assessment and evaluation of options was identified as priorities by 73% and 95% of growers respectively. Off-farm investments, off-farm employment activities and a healthy lifestyle to mitigate climate induced stresses were also considered to be important. The project successfully met objectives of the FarmReady Program concerning promotion, uptake, best practice and integration with industry. BMP standards developed in the 'Managing Climate Risk' module now provide useful benchmarks for extension programs that can be transferable nationally, and thus should be promoted to agencies such as the Grains Research and Development Corporation, training organisations for vocational education, and State Departments of Agriculture. RD&E programs should promote the uptake of robust, flexible management systems for managing the variability of seasonal conditions as the key approach for adaptation to climate change

Seasonal climate forecasts and decision support systems for drought prone agriculture: a case study based on the development and application of the Rainman climate analysis software

This paper considers the role of decision support systems to apply seasonal climate information in agriculture by documenting the development and application of the Australian Rainman computer package as a case study. Rainman aims to develop knowledge and skills for managing climate variability in agriculture by analysing effects of the El Niño / Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on rainfall to derive probability-based seasonal climate forecasts. The two main seasonal forecast tools used in Rainman are the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and an index of Sea Surface Temperature (SST). The Rainman version 4 prototype is due for release and has improved seasonal forecast analyses and capacity for world-wide mapping of seasonal rainfall information at district and regional scales. There has also been interest in applying seasonal forecast technology to water supplies and irrigation systems and has led to developing the StreamFlow supplement for analysis of streamflow and run-off data. A central principle used in developing Rainman has been to include only seasonal forecast methods that have been well established and accepted by the scientific community and national organisations with responsibility in seasonal climate forecasting. Thus, the participative process to define and review Rainman has been an important element in the development of Rainman as a decision support product. Peer review is a necessary part of the quality assurance process in developing decision support systems. In communicating knowledge of risk we have found that cumulative probability distributions work well for scientists. However, in communicating with the farming community, other ways of expressing risk have been more effective such as frequency plots, pie charts, box plots and time series. Rainman analyses follow accepted scientific conventions by applying several statistical tests to seasonal forecasts so that: (a) users have some guidance regarding the statistical reliability of the forecast information, and (b) duty of care is discharged in providing forecast information to users. The Rainman case study shows that software is an effective way to provide people with climatic information because it can be detailed but easy to use, comprehensive and locally relevant. Learning to use ENSO information is maximised by combining “hands-on” learning with the software with participation in a workshop where people share ideas and experiences. Benefits of using Rainman include improved knowledge and skills about the variable climate and seasonal climate forecasts, enhanced agriculture and resource management decisions, and reduced climate risk exposure

A non-invasive, home-based EEG hypoglycaemia warning system for personal monitoring using skin surface electrodes : a single-case feasibility study

Hypoglycaemia unawareness is a common condition associated with increased risk of severe hypoglycaemia. The purpose of the authors' study was to develop a simple to use, home-based and non-invasive hypoglycaemia warning system based on electroencephalography (EEG), and to demonstrate its use in a single-case feasibility study. Methods: A participant with type 1 diabetes forms a single-person case study where blood sugar levels and EEG were recorded. EEG was recorded using skin surface electrodes placed behind the ear located within the T3 region by the participant in the home. EEG was analysed retrospectively to develop an algorithm which would trigger a warning if EEG changes associated with hypoglycaemia onset were detected. Results: All hypoglycaemia events were detected by the EEG hypoglycaemia warning algorithm. Warnings were triggered with blood glucose concentration levels at or below 4.2 mmol/l in this participant and no warnings were issued when in euglycaemia. Conclusion: The feasibility of a non-invasive EEG-based hypoglycaemia warning system for personal monitoring in the home has been demonstrated in a single case study. The results suggest that further studies are warranted to evaluate the system prospectively in a larger group of participants

How nematodes reduce yield

[Introduction]: Pratylenchus thornei is a major pathogen of wheat crops in the northern grain region of Eastern Australia with an estimated annual yield loss of $38 million. Damaged crops show symptoms of water and nutrient stress that suggest water and nutrient uptake is significantly affected. In order to understand the mechanisms involved in reducing water uptake and consequently plant yield, detailed measurements of water extraction and leaf area were conducted on a range of wheat cultivars with differing levels of tolerance and resistance to P. thornei. This study is part of a larger project that aims to better understand the growth, development and mechanisms with which P. thornei reduces the yields of susceptible crops in the northern grains region. The hope is by fully understanding the mechanisms with which this microscopic pathogen can reduce yields, better management strategies can be developed to reduce its impact within intolerant crops and across the rotation

Cereal and Pulse Crops with Improved Resistance to Pratylenchus thornei Are Needed to Maximize Wheat Production and Expand Crop Sequence Options

n the subtropical grain region of eastern Australia, two experiments were conducted, one initially with 2490 P. thornei/kg soil, the other with 8150 P. thornei/kg soil at 0–0.9 m soil depth. We determined the effect of P. thornei, residual from a weed-free fallow and pre-cropping with several cultivars each of barley (Hordeum vulgare), faba bean (Vicia faba), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), and wheat (Triticum aestivum) (Phase 1), on the growth of wheat cultivars with intolerance or tolerance to P. thornei (Phase 2). Pratylenchus thornei substantially increased after growing all cultivars of the Phase 1 faba bean, barley, and most cultivars of chickpea and wheat, and decreased after two moderately resistant wheat cultivars and the fallow treatment. The biomass of the Phase 2 tolerant cultivar ranged from 5070 to 6780 kg/ha and the intolerant cultivar 1020 to 4740 kg/ha. There was a negative linear relationship between P. thornei population densities and biomass of the Phase 2 intolerant cultivar but not of the tolerant cultivar. Growers are at risk of financial loss because they are restricted in their choice of crops to reduce damaging population densities of P. thornei. The development of resistant and tolerant crop genotypes can maximize production in P. thornei-affected farming systems

Survey for root-lesion and stunt nematodes in the northern Australian grain region

The presence of root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus thornei and P. neglectus) and stunt nematode (Merlinius brevidens) in some parts of the northern grain region has been known since the 1960's and yield loss in wheat caused by P. thornei has been demonstrated since the late 1970's. However, the distribution of P. thornei was considered restricted to the Darling Downs in Queensland and to a few localities in northern NSW. Following the diagnosis of P. thornei in a wheat crop in a newer cropping area around Goondiwindi in 1996 a more extensive survey of wheat fields was conducted. Soil samples (0-30cm) collected mainly from under wheat crops were processed manually and nematodes extracted by the Whitehead tray method and enumerated under a compound microscope. Out of 795 fields tested from 1996 to 2002, Pratylenchus thornei occurred in 67%, P. neglectus in 32% (both species occurred together in 26%) and no Pratylenchus spp. were detected in 27%. Merlinius brevidens occurred in 73% of fields. Edaphic factors controlling the incidence of these nematodes were tested on 833 samples collected in 1996-7. All three nematode species had a broad pH range, namely from 6.5 to 9.5 for both Pratylenchus spp. and from 6.0 to 9.5 for Merinlius brevidens. All species were detected in soil samples ranging from <20 to 80% clay and from 80% sand. However, within this range maximum incidence of P. thornei was in finer textured soils than for P. neglectus. Soil organic carbon had no clearcut effect on the incidence of the species. The incidence of P. neglectus appeared to increase with increasing concentration of DTPA-extractable zinc and bicarbonate–extractable phosphorus in the soil. Observations indicate that P. thornei was spreading in the region in run-off water and in soil on farm machinery and increasing under intense cropping to wheat

Common health assets protocol: a mixed-methods, realist evaluation and economic appraisal of how community-led organisations (CLOs) impact on the health and well-being of people living in deprived areas

Introduction: This research investigates how community-led organisations’ (CLOs’) use of assets-based approaches improves health and well-being, and how that might be different in different contexts. Assets-based approaches involve ‘doing with’ rather than ‘doing to’ and bring people in communities together to achieve positive change using their own knowledge, skills and experience. Some studies have shown that such approaches can have a positive effect on health and well-being. However, research is limited, and we know little about which approaches lead to which outcomes and how different contexts might affect success. Methods and analysis: Using a realist approach, we will work with 15 CLOs based in disadvantaged communities in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland. A realist synthesis of review papers, and a policy analysis in different contexts, precedes qualitative interviews and workshops with stakeholders, to find out how CLOs’ programmes work and identify existing data. We will explore participants’ experiences through: a Q methodology study; participatory photography workshops; qualitative interviews and measure outcomes using a longitudinal survey, with 225 CLO participants, to assess impact for people who connect with the CLOs. An economic analysis will estimate costs and benefits to participants, for different contexts and mechanisms. A ‘Lived Experience Panel’ of people connected with our CLOs as participants or volunteers, will ensure the appropriateness of the research, interpretation and reporting of findings. Ethics and dissemination: This project, research tools and consent processes have been approved by the Glasgow Caledonian University School of Health and Life Sciences Ethics Committee, and affirmed by Ethics Committees at Bournemouth University, Queen’s University Belfast and the University of East London. Common Health Assets does not involve any National Health Service sites, staff or patients. Findings will be presented through social media, project website, blogs, policy briefings, journal articles, conferences and visually in short digital stories, and photographic exhibitions

Sustainability of beef production from brigalow lands after cultivation and mining. 1. Sown pasture growth and carrying capacity

Context: New Acland coal mine in south-eastern Queensland is seeking to rehabilitate mined land to pastures that are safe, stable and sustainable for beef production. Little is known of the productivity and sustainability of grazing previously mined land in the Darling Downs study region. Additionally, information is required to specify management guidelines for sustainable grazing of regional land types retired from cultivation. Aims: Identify pasture growth characteristics, rainfall use efficiencies and long-term carrying capacities of subtropical sown pastures established on lands rehabilitated after open-cut coal mining in comparison to sown pastures established on un-mined but previously cultivated lands. Methods: Pasture growth and quality (% nitrogen) were observed using the Swiftsynd methodology in ungrazed exclosures with three sites on rehabilitated lands of the Acland Grazing Trial over a 5-year period (2014–2018), and 13 sites on unmined lands over periods of 2–5 years providing data for modelling pasture growth. Key results: Peak pasture yield (TSDM for autumn harvests) averaged for 2017 and 2018 was greater (P < 0.1) on rehabilitated sites than unmined Poplar Box land type sites (5957 and 2233 kg/ha respectively) but similar to Brigalow Uplands and Mountain Coolibah land type sites (3946 and 3413 kg/ha respectively). Pasture rundown was evident, with pasture N uptake decreasing over 5 years at some sites. Soil mineral N supply (potentially mineralisable N and mineral N) in spring was a useful indicator of N uptake over the following growing season. Simulations using the GRASP pasture growth model for the grazing trial period predicted rainfall use efficiencies of 12.0, 7.0, 9.1 and 4.8 kg/ha.mm rainfall for rehabilitated sites and unmined sites on Brigalow Uplands, Mountain Coolibah and Poplar Box land types respectively. Long-term carrying capacities based on estimates of long-term median pasture growth and 30% utilisation were 4.39, 3.58 and 5.92 ha/adult equivalent respectively for the unmined land types, and 2.45 ha/adult equivalent for the rehabilitated lands. Conclusions: Rehabilitated land can be as productive as unmined but previously cultivated land. Implications: Grazing management plans for sustainable management of mined and unmined lands can be developed using data from the present study. The plans will assist with the transition of rehabilitated lands to commercial agriculture