The effect of age, race, and sex on social cognitive performance in individuals with schizophrenia

Age, race, and sex are linked to social cognitive performance among healthy individuals, but whether similar effects are evident in schizophrenia is unknown. Data from 170 individuals with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and 98 healthy controls were used to examine relations between these demographic factors and performance across multiple domains and measures of social cognition. Sex was not related to performance on any domain, but older age was related to poorer emotion recognition from dynamic stimuli in both patients and controls. In patients, older age was also associated with better abilities to decipher hints. Both Caucasian patients and controls performed better than African American individuals on emotion recognition and mental state attribution tasks that use only Caucasian individuals as visual stimuli. Findings suggest rather limited influences of demographic factors but do demonstrate normative age and race effects among patients. Findings also highlight important methodological considerations for measurement of social cognition

Interactive models of depression vulnerability: the role of childhood trauma, dysfunctional attitudes, and coping.

ObjectivesThis prospective study investigated whether within-individual relations between depression vulnerability factors (childhood trauma, dysfunctional attitudes, maladaptive coping) and depressive symptom trajectories varied as a function of the number of prior major depressive episodes (MDEs) experienced in their lifetime.DesignParticipants were 68 young adults who varied with regard to their history of depression; 32 were remitted depressed and 36 were never depressed.MethodsDepressive symptoms and disorders were assessed using semi-structured psychiatric interviews conducted twice over a 6-month period; interviews yielded weekly ratings of depressive symptoms during the follow-up interval. Childhood trauma, dysfunctional attitudes and coping were assessed with self-report measures. Data analyses were conducted using time-lagged multilevel models.ResultsIndividuals with more previous MDEs who reported greater childhood trauma exposure, more dysfunctional attitudes, or greater use of maladaptive coping strategies experienced more rapid increases in depressive symptoms during the follow-up period. A significant interaction of coping, number of previous MDEs, and time was found indicating that among individuals with less adaptive coping (i.e., lower primary or lower secondary control coping scores), depressive symptoms rating (DSR) increased significantly in relation to number of prior depressive episodes; no change in DSR was observed for never-depressed individuals. Among individuals with higher primary control coping scores, significant increases in DSR scores were observed for individuals with ≥3 prior MDEs only.ConclusionsFindings highlight the need for treatment and prevention programmes that target stress reactivity and coping strategies early in the course of depression

Interactive models of depression vulnerability: the role of childhood trauma, dysfunctional attitudes, and coping.

ObjectivesThis prospective study investigated whether within-individual relations between depression vulnerability factors (childhood trauma, dysfunctional attitudes, maladaptive coping) and depressive symptom trajectories varied as a function of the number of prior major depressive episodes (MDEs) experienced in their lifetime.DesignParticipants were 68 young adults who varied with regard to their history of depression; 32 were remitted depressed and 36 were never depressed.MethodsDepressive symptoms and disorders were assessed using semi-structured psychiatric interviews conducted twice over a 6-month period; interviews yielded weekly ratings of depressive symptoms during the follow-up interval. Childhood trauma, dysfunctional attitudes and coping were assessed with self-report measures. Data analyses were conducted using time-lagged multilevel models.ResultsIndividuals with more previous MDEs who reported greater childhood trauma exposure, more dysfunctional attitudes, or greater use of maladaptive coping strategies experienced more rapid increases in depressive symptoms during the follow-up period. A significant interaction of coping, number of previous MDEs, and time was found indicating that among individuals with less adaptive coping (i.e., lower primary or lower secondary control coping scores), depressive symptoms rating (DSR) increased significantly in relation to number of prior depressive episodes; no change in DSR was observed for never-depressed individuals. Among individuals with higher primary control coping scores, significant increases in DSR scores were observed for individuals with ≥3 prior MDEs only.ConclusionsFindings highlight the need for treatment and prevention programmes that target stress reactivity and coping strategies early in the course of depression

Integrating Developmental Theory and Methodology: Using Derivatives to Articulate Change Theories, Models, and Inferences

Matching theories about growth, development, and change to appropriate statistical models can present a challenge, which can result in misuse, misinterpretation, and underutilization of different analytical approaches. We discuss the use of derivatives: the change of a construct with respect to the change in another construct. Derivatives provide a common language linking developmental theory and statistical methods. Conceptualizing change in terms of derivatives allows precise translation of theory into method and highlights commonly overlooked models of change. A wide variety of models can be understood in terms of the level, velocity, and acceleration of constructs: the zeroth, first, and second derivatives, respectively. We introduce the language of derivatives, and highlight the conceptually differing questions that can be addressed in developmental studies. A substantive example is presented to demonstrate how common and unfamiliar statistical methodology can be understood as addressing relations between differing pairs of derivatives

The effect of age, race, and sex on social cognitive performance in individuals with schizophrenia

Age, race, and sex are linked to social cognitive performance among healthy individuals, but whether similar effects are evident in schizophrenia is unknown. Data from 170 individuals with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and 98 healthy controls were used to examine relations between these demographic factors and performance across multiple domains and measures of social cognition. Sex was not related to performance on any domain, but older age was related to poorer emotion recognition from dynamic stimuli in both patients and controls. In patients, older age was also associated with better abilities to decipher hints. Both Caucasian patients and controls performed better than African American individuals on emotion recognition and mental state attribution tasks that use only Caucasian individuals as visual stimuli. Findings suggest rather limited influences of demographic factors but do demonstrate normative age and race effects among patients. Findings also highlight important methodological considerations for measurement of social cognition