Mapping genomic loci implicates genes and synaptic biology in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia has a heritability of 60-80%1, much of which is attributable to common risk alleles. Here, in a two-stage genome-wide association study of up to 76,755 individuals with schizophrenia and 243,649 control individuals, we report common variant associations at 287 distinct genomic loci. Associations were concentrated in genes that are expressed in excitatory and inhibitory neurons of the central nervous system, but not in other tissues or cell types. Using fine-mapping and functional genomic data, we identify 120 genes (106 protein-coding) that are likely to underpin associations at some of these loci, including 16 genes with credible causal non-synonymous or untranslated region variation. We also implicate fundamental processes related to neuronal function, including synaptic organization, differentiation and transmission. Fine-mapped candidates were enriched for genes associated with rare disruptive coding variants in people with schizophrenia, including the glutamate receptor subunit GRIN2A and transcription factor SP4, and were also enriched for genes implicated by such variants in neurodevelopmental disorders. We identify biological processes relevant to schizophrenia pathophysiology; show convergence of common and rare variant associations in schizophrenia and neurodevelopmental disorders; and provide a resource of prioritized genes and variants to advance mechanistic studies

Mapping genomic loci prioritises genes and implicates synaptic biology in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia has a heritability of 60–80%1, much of which is attributable to common risk alleles. Here, in a two-stage genome-wide association study of up to 76,755 individuals with schizophrenia and 243,649 control individuals, we report common variant associations at 287 distinct genomic loci. Associations were concentrated in genes that are expressed in excitatory and inhibitory neurons of the central nervous system, but not in other tissues or cell types. Using fine-mapping and functional genomic data, we identify 120 genes (106 protein-coding) that are likely to underpin associations at some of these loci, including 16 genes with credible causal non-synonymous or untranslated region variation. We also implicate fundamental processes related to neuronal function, including synaptic organization, differentiation and transmission. Fine-mapped candidates were enriched for genes associated with rare disruptive coding variants in people with schizophrenia, including the glutamate receptor subunit GRIN2A and transcription factor SP4, and were also enriched for genes implicated by such variants in neurodevelopmental disorders. We identify biological processes relevant to schizophrenia pathophysiology; show convergence of common and rare variant associations in schizophrenia and neurodevelopmental disorders; and provide a resource of prioritized genes and variants to advance mechanistic studies

Synthesis and Evaluation of Diphenyl Phosphonate Esters as Inhibitors of the Trypsin-Like Granzymes a and K and Mast Cell Tryptase

Thirty-six new amino acid and peptidyl diphenyl phosphonate esters were synthesized and evaluated to identify potent and selective inhibitors for four trypsin-like proteases: lymphocyte granzymes A and K, human mast cell tryptase, and pancreatic trypsin. Among five Cbz derivatives of Lys and Arg homologues, Z-(4-AmPhe)(P)(OPh)2 is the most potent inhibitor for granzyme A, and Z-Lys(P)(OPh)2 is the best inhibitor for granzyme K, mast tryptase, and trypsin. The amidino P1 residue D,L-(4-AmPhGly)(P)(OPh)2 was utilized in a series of compounds with several different N-protecting groups and systematic substitutions at P2 in Cbz-AA derivatives and at P3 in Cbz-AA-Ala derivatives. Generally, these phosphonates inhibit granzyme A and trypsin more potently than granzyme K and tryptase. The P2 Thr and Ala dipeptide phosphonates, Cbz-AA-(4-AmPhGly)(P)(OPh)2, are the most potent inhibitors for granzyme A, and Cbz-Thr-(4-AmPhGly)(P)(OPh)2 (k(obs)[I] = 2220 M-1 s-1) was quite specific with much lower inhibition rates for granzyme K and trypsin (k(obs)[I] = 3 and 97 M-1 s-1, respectively) and no inhibition with tryptase. The most effective inhibitor of granzyme A was Ph-SO2-Gly- Pro-(4-AmPhGly)(P)(OPh)2 with a second-order rate constant of 3650 M-1 s-1. The most potent inhibitor for granzyme K was 3,3-diphenylpropanoyl-Pro- (4-AmPhGly)(P)(OPh)2 with a k(obs)/[I] = 1830 M-1 s-1; all other phosphonates inhibited granzyme K weakly (k(obs)/[I] \u3c 60 M-1 s-1). Human mast cell tryptase was inhibited slowly by these phosphonates with Cbz- Lys(P)(OPh)2 as the best inhibitor (k(obs)/[I] = 89 M-1 s-1). The overall results suggest that scaffolds of Phe-Thr-(4-AmPhe) and Phe-Pro-Lys will be useful to create selective phosphonate inhibitors for granzymes A and K, respectively, and that P4 substituents offer opportunities to further enhance selectivity and reactivity