Le droit à un délai raisonnable devant la cour de cassation d'Egypte

Des liens étroits rattachent depuis plus de deux siècles les droits français et égyptien, en particulier depuis l'adoption de codes d'inspiration française sous le règne d'Ismail (1863-1879). Le mode de raisonnement juridique et l'organisation des juridictions sont aujourd'hui encore très semblables dans les deux pays. Ils disposent que le pouvoir judiciaire est tenu, dans un État de droit, de garantir à ses citoyens le droit à un procès équitable et dans un délai raisonnable. Ce droit, reconnu par les instruments internationaux de protection des droits de l'homme, a été consacré par les constitutions égyptiennes successives. Or, depuis de nombreuses années, la Cour de cassation d'Égypte ne semble plus en mesure de respecter le droit à être jugé dans un délai raisonnable. Quelle est dès lors l'utilité d'une justice équitable et indépendante si le justiciable est contraint d'attendre près de dix ans avant de voir justice faite ? La juridiction suprême ayant la charge d'unifier la jurisprudence peut-elle supporter une situation à ce point dégradée ? L'amélioration des délais tient à des points de procédure, à des mécanismes de filtrage, mais également à des questions d'organisation du travail, de bonne diffusion de la jurisprudence, qui interrogent bien au-delà les capacités de régulation du système judiciaire. La présidence de la Cour de cassation d'Égypte a souhaité, via une expertise collégiale originale rassemblant magistrats et chercheurs, bénéficier des connaissances scientifiques et techniques disponibles et de recommandations qui éclairent sous un jour complet la situation difficile de cette instance

Azole Resistance in <i>Aspergillus fumigatus</i>: A Consequence of Antifungal Use in Agriculture?

Agricultural industry uses pesticides to optimize food production for the growing human population. A major issue for crops is fungal phytopathogens, which are treated mainly with azole fungicides. Azoles are also the main medical treatment in the management of &lt;i&gt;Aspergillus&lt;/i&gt; diseases caused by ubiquitous fungi, such as &lt;i&gt;Aspergillus fumigatus&lt;/i&gt; . However, epidemiological research demonstrated an increasing prevalence of azole-resistant strains in &lt;i&gt;A. fumigatus&lt;/i&gt; . The main resistance mechanism is a combination of alterations in the gene &lt;i&gt;cyp51A&lt;/i&gt; (TR34/L98H). Surprisingly, this mutation is not only found in patients receiving long-term azole therapy for chronic aspergillosis but also in azole naïve patients. This suggests an environmental route of resistance through the exposure of azole fungicides in agriculture. In this review, we report data from several studies that strongly suggest that agricultural azoles are responsible for medical treatment failure in azole-naïve patients in clinical settings

Twelve-month observational study of children with cancer in 41 countries during the COVID-19 pandemic

Introduction Childhood cancer is a leading cause of death. It is unclear whether the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted childhood cancer mortality. In this study, we aimed to establish all-cause mortality rates for childhood cancers during the COVID-19 pandemic and determine the factors associated with mortality. Methods Prospective cohort study in 109 institutions in 41 countries. Inclusion criteria: children &lt;18 years who were newly diagnosed with or undergoing active treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, retinoblastoma, Wilms tumour, glioma, osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, medulloblastoma and neuroblastoma. Of 2327 cases, 2118 patients were included in the study. The primary outcome measure was all-cause mortality at 30 days, 90 days and 12 months. Results All-cause mortality was 3.4% (n=71/2084) at 30-day follow-up, 5.7% (n=113/1969) at 90-day follow-up and 13.0% (n=206/1581) at 12-month follow-up. The median time from diagnosis to multidisciplinary team (MDT) plan was longest in low-income countries (7 days, IQR 3-11). Multivariable analysis revealed several factors associated with 12-month mortality, including low-income (OR 6.99 (95% CI 2.49 to 19.68); p&lt;0.001), lower middle income (OR 3.32 (95% CI 1.96 to 5.61); p&lt;0.001) and upper middle income (OR 3.49 (95% CI 2.02 to 6.03); p&lt;0.001) country status and chemotherapy (OR 0.55 (95% CI 0.36 to 0.86); p=0.008) and immunotherapy (OR 0.27 (95% CI 0.08 to 0.91); p=0.035) within 30 days from MDT plan. Multivariable analysis revealed laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection (OR 5.33 (95% CI 1.19 to 23.84); p=0.029) was associated with 30-day mortality. Conclusions Children with cancer are more likely to die within 30 days if infected with SARS-CoV-2. However, timely treatment reduced odds of death. This report provides crucial information to balance the benefits of providing anticancer therapy against the risks of SARS-CoV-2 infection in children with cancer

Devenir révolutionnaire à Alexandrie. Contribution à une sociologie historique du surgissement révolutionnaire en Égypte

Cette thèse contribue à une sociologie historique du surgissement révolutionnaire en Égypte à travers une approche localisée et à l'échelle individuelle. Le surgissement révolutionnaire ren¬voie à une Séquence d'interactions dont l'issue, contingente, peut donner lieu à un basculement général de l'ordre politique. Afin de rendre compte des mécanismes concrets dont sont faites ces séquences, cette recherche se fonde sur l'étude des engagements de révolutionnaires et de novices dans la deuxième ville d'Egypte, Alexandrie, lors de la « révolution du 25 janvier 2011 ». Ces engagements sont analysés à l'aune des transformations politiques, économiques et cul¬turelles que I Egypte a connues depuis les années 1980 et, plus précisément, le renouveau pro¬testataire qui marque la décennie 2000. Faisant usage d'une multitude de sources et de données (entretiens, observations, traces numériques, revues de presse, corpus de photographies et de vidéos), cette thèse permet de renouveler notre compréhension des phénomènes révolution¬naires et de la manière dont ils émergent. Plus précisément, on y voit comment, à rebours des analyses globalisantes et réifiantes des processus révolutionnaires, on ne peut comprendre la dynamique d'émergence d'une crise sans en revenir aux paramètres situationnels et surtout aux dynamiques locales de chaque cas. Par ailleurs, en focalisant l'attention sur' la ville' d Alexandrie, cette thèse contribue à ouvrir un chantier de recherche sur cette grande métropole mediterraneenne qui reste sous-étudiée. -- This thesis contributes to a historical sociology of revolutionary émergence in Egypt, through a localized an micrological approach. The revolutionary emergence refers to a sequence of interactions, always contingent, which can give rise to a sudden breakdown of a political re¬gime. In order to give an account of the concrete mechanisms constituting these sequences this research is based on the study of the careers of revolutionaries and novices in Egypt's second city Alexandria, during the "révolution of 25 January 2011 ». These political commitments are analyzed m the light of the political, economic and cultural transformations that Egypt has un- dergone smce the 1980s and, more specifically, the renewal of protest activities that marked the decade 2000. Using a multitude of sources and data (interviews, observations, digital traces press reviews, photographs and videos), this thesis allows us to renew our understanding of revolutionary phenomena and how they emerge. More precisely, we see how, against the back- ground of globahzmg and reifying analyses of revolutionary processes, we cannot understand the dynamics of the emergence of a crisis without returning to the situational parameters and above ail, to the local dynamics of each case. Moreover, by focusing attention on the city of Alexandria, this thesis contributes to opening a research avenue on this important Mediterra- nean metropolis which remains under-studied

The impartiality of arbitrators

Malgré l’importance de l’exigence d’impartialité et sa reconnaissance universelle, sa mise en œuvre en matière d’arbitrage reste entourée de nombreuses incertitudes. En effet, les normes sur l’impartialité de l’arbitre (ex. : standard du doute raisonnable sur l’impartialité) sont généralement trop vagues pour fournir des directives claires aux organes devant les appliquer dans des hypothèses très variées. Dès lors, une étude mérite d’être menée afin de fournir à l’organe chargé d’évaluer l’impartialité de l’arbitre un support lui permettant de mieux accomplir sa mission. Pour ce faire, nous commencerons par distinguer les deux conceptions envisageables de l’impartialité : une conception pure et consensuelle (résistance aux tentations de partialité) et une conception élargie et ambitieuse (ouverture d’esprit à l’égard du litige). Ensuite, nous examinerons les principales questions émanant de la pratique de l’arbitrage. Seront ainsi analysés : l’identification des risques de partialité de l’arbitre à partir de ses actes, liens et opinions préalables ; le degré d’impartialité du coarbitre ; la renonciation à invoquer le risque de partialité. En étudiant chaque question, nous mettrons en évidence ses enjeux (notamment le besoin de prendre en considération les exigences de l’efficacité et de la qualité de l’arbitrage ainsi que le « droit » de chaque partie de nommer un arbitre) pour pouvoir ensuite en envisager les réponses possibles, notamment en nous inspirant des solutions consacrées par la jurisprudence française et étrangère.Despite its importance and universal recognition, the principle of arbitrators’ impartiality is surrounded by many uncertainties, the main reason being that the applicable rules (e. g. reasonable doubts test) are often too vague to offer clear guidance to the authorities, given the diverse situations they have to apply them to. In order to provide them with a clearer guidance, there is a need to conduct a study on the arbitrators’ impartiality. To begin with, we will distinguish the two possible understandings of impartiality : the pure and consensual understanding (resistance to temptation to be partial) and the enlarged and ambitious understanding (open-mindedness towards the dispute’s issues). Then, we will study the practical issues stemming from arbitral practice. These issues revolve around : the assessment of impartiality on the basis of arbitrators’ acts, relationships and expressed views (the issue conflict question) ; the impartiality of party-appointed arbitrators ; the waiver of the right to invoke the risk of partiality. While studying each issue, we will highlight its stakes (especially the need to ensure the efficiency and quality of the arbitral justice as well as the need to preserve the “right” of each party to appoint an arbitrator) in order to contemplate possible answers, especially in the light of what has been decided in French and foreign case-law

Multi-Partite Metabolic Interactions in The Honey Bee Gut Microbiota Between The Symbionts Snodgrassella and Gilliamella and Their Host

Microbial communities are found everywhere in nature: in the soil and water, on plants, or in the organs of animais. These communities play important raies in shaping their specific environments. The assembly and composition of microbial communities is driven by many ecological factors such as physiochemical conditions and interactions with other community members. Studying interactions between microbial community members and their environment is challenging in dynamic, difficult to access environments with diverse microbial species. Therefore, amenable, ecologically relevant models are important. The honey bee gut microbiota is an example of an easy to manipulate, simple, and conserved system which offers many advantages to disentangle microbial interactions. ln tnis thesis, 1 focused on understanding how metabolic interactions shape the coexistence between two honey bee bacterial symbionts, and their honey bee host. ln Chapter 1, we investigated how the divergent species of the genus Gilliamella and the species Snodgrassella alvi (S. alvi) influence each other's colonization in microbiota-depleted (MD) bees fed a complex or simple diet. To our surprise, we found that S. alvi colonizes the gut by using host-derived metabolites. Using 13C tracers coupled with metabolomics and nano scale ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS}, we demonstrated that S. alvi used host-secreted 3-hydroxy-3- methylglutarate, citrate, and glycerate among other carboxylic acids. However, we also showed that, as expected, S. alvi utilized organic acids produ ed by Gilliamella in the gut. We further demonstrated that both the host- and Gilliamella- derived metabolites were utilized by S. alvi in vitro. Finally, using amplicon sequencing we found that Gilliamella apis was the most abundant of the Gilliamella species to colonize the gut. Our results show the first evidence for direct host-compound foraging in the honey bee gut microbiota, which can be supplemented by microbial cross-feeding. However, the importance of cross-feeding remains elusive as neither species enhanced the colonization of the other. ln Chapter 11, we followed up on the metabolic interactions between both species with in vitro growth experiments. We used.co-culture assays in minimal medium to investigate whether the two bacteria affect each other's growth and whether they exchange the same metabolites as the ones detected in vivo. We found that G. apis positively affects the growth of 5. alvi when grown on carbon sources that cannot be utilized by 5. alvi (glucose and N-acetyl-glucosamine). ln both conditions G. apis produced pyruvate, lactate and succinate which were consumed by 5. alvi. Growth of G. apis on N-acetyl-glucosamine, a major host derived compound, led to an increase of acetate in the medium and was partially depleted by 5. alvi. To further understand how the two bacteria influence each other's activity in the gut, we also attempted a transcriptome analysis in vivo. We colonized MD bees with the two bacteria separately or together and extracted bacterial mRNA enriched RNA samples for sequencing. However, due to low recovery of bacterial reads, especially for G. apis, these experiments did not allow us to carry out the transcriptomic analysis. These results show that in vitro time-course co-culture assays cou Id recapitulate in vivo phenotypes and to accurately follow the dynamics of metabolic interactions. We also found that both a better understanding of factors regulating Gilliamella colonization as well as further method development were necessary to study gene expression of relatively low abundance bacteria in the gut. The genus Gilliamella includes three distinct species, each composed of multiple strains, all of which can coexist in the honey bee gut. ln Chapter Ill, we hypothesized that the genomic diversity of Gilliamella translates into different functional capacities, gut colonization patterns, and interactions with 5. alvi. We selected a set of ten divergent strains belonging to the three different Gilliamella species and colonized MD bees with each of them alone or in the presence of a defined community composed of the predominant species of the bee gut microbiota. Our findings revealed substantial variation in colonization success and loads both at the species- and strain-level. A single strain of Gilliamella apicola (ESL0309) exceptionally colonized almost all bees at high loads in the ileum. Furthermore, the presence of the community generally reduced the bacterial loads of all strains of Gilliamella in the gut except for strain ESL0309. Surprisingly, we also found that most strains colonized the posterior hindgut (i.e., rectum) to higher levels than the ileum, where Gilliamella forms a biofilm with 5. alvi on the hast surface. To identify possible traits which could explain the different colonization patterns we investigated the carbohydrate degradation genes, carbon source utilization profiles, and biofilm formation ability of ail·ten strains in vitro. lnterestingly, wë found a significant correlation between bacterial loads in vivo and the ability to forma biofilm in vitro. These results show that different species and strains within the genus do not colonize equally well, ·suggesting that strain-level diversity is a key aspect of the tri­ partite interaction between S. alvi, Gilliamella and the hast. ln summary, our results show that host-metabolite foraging supports colonization of symbionts. Taken together with previous work, these results suggest that host­ foraging might be more widespread in the gut than initially anticipated. Our results also indicate that multipartite interactions between gut bacteria and the host are key for gut community assembly. ln addition, we find that genetic variation of symbionts likely is determinant for community assembly and niche occupation. Thus, our findings confirm the importance of studying species- and strain-level divergence in natural bacterial communities

Chapitre 3. Une dynamique émergente : le processus révolutionnaire à Alexandrie, janvier-février 2011

Comment les soulèvements du « Printemps arabe » ont-ils pris ? Comment les mobilisations protestataires parties de Sidi Bouzid ont-elles pu s’étendre jusqu’à influencer la situation à Tunis puis en Égypte, en Libye et ailleurs ? Face à la puissance perturbatrice de l’imprévu, nombre d’analystes et de protagonistes, désorientés par la tournure inopinée de situations que beaucoup croyaient stabilisées, voire immuables, ont massivement recouru aux métaphores : « Printemps arabe », « vague », « c..