Identification, cloning, and mutational analysis of the casein kinase 1 cDNA of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum - Stage-specific expression of the gene

The cDNA for casein kinase 1 (CK1) of Plasmodium falciparum was cloned, sequenced, and expressed in bacteria, The single major open reading frame of the 1,2-kilobase pair cDNA coded for a 324-amino acid polypeptide of similar to 37 kDa, the predicted sequence of which showed strong identity with known CK1 isoforms, The purified recombinant enzyme exhibited properties characteristic of CK1, such as inhibition by CK1-7, the ability to phosphorylate a highly specific peptide substrate, and a strong preference for ATP over GTP, A casein kinase activity, partially purified from soluble extracts of P. falciparum by affinity chromatography through CK1-7 columns displayed identical properties, The activity showed a stage-specific expression in the parasite, in the order trophozoite \u3e ring much greater than schizont. Northern analysis indicated the existence of two major CK1 mRNAs, 2.4 and 3.2 kilobase pairs long, the levels of which mere in the order ring \u3e schizont \u3e trophozoite. Mutagenesis of recombinant CK1 defined important amino acid residues and their potential role in the conformation of the enzyme, The malarial CK1 appeared to be the one of the smallest and perhaps the most primitive CK1 enzymes known, containing little sequence information beyond the minimal catalytic domain

Protein farnesyltransferase and protein prenylation in Plasmodium falciparum

Comparison of the malaria parasite and mammalian protein prenyltransferases and their cellular substrates is important for establishing this enzyme as a target for developing antimalarial agents. Nineteen heptapeptides differing only in their carboxyl-terminal amino acid were tested as alternative substrates of partially purified Plasmodium falciparum protein farnesyltransferase. Only NRSCAIM and NRSCAIQ serve as substrates, with NRSCAIM being the best. Peptidomimetics, FTI-276 and GGTI-287, inhibit the transferase with IC50 values of 1 and 32 nm, respectively. Incubation of P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes with [H-3]farnesol labels 50- and 22-28-kDa proteins, whereas [H-3]geranylgeraniol labels only 22-28-kDa proteins. The 50-kDa protein is shown to be farnesylated, whereas the 22-28-kDa proteins are geranylgeranylated, irrespective of the labeling prenol. Protein labeling is inhibited more than 50% by either 5 mum FTI-277 or GGTI-298. The same concentration of inhibitors also inhibits parasite growth from the ring stage by 50%, decreases expression of prenylated proteins as measured with prenyl-specific antibody, and inhibits parasite differentiation beyond the trophozoite stage. Furthermore, differentiation specific prenylation of P. falciparum proteins is demonstrated. Protein labeling is detected predominantly during the trophozoite to schizont and schizont to ring transitions. These results demonstrate unique properties of protein prenylation in P. falciparum: a limited specificity of the farnesyltransferase for peptide substrates compared with mammalian enzymes, the ability to use farnesol to label both farnesyl and geranylgeranyl moieties on proteins, differentiation specific protein prenylation, and the ability of peptidomimetic prenyltransferase inhibitors to block parasite differentiation

Chloroplast-Derived Vaccine Antigens Confer Dual Immunity Against Cholera and Malaria by Oral or Injectable Delivery

Cholera and malaria are major diseases causing high mortality. The only licensed cholera vaccine is expensive; immunity is lost in children within 3 years and adults are not fully protected. No vaccine is yet available for malaria. Therefore, in this study, the cholera toxin-B subunit (CTB) of Vibrio cholerae fused to malarial vaccine antigens apical membrane antigen-1 (AMA1) and merozoite surface protein-1 (MSP1) was expressed in lettuce and tobacco chloroplasts. Southern blot analysis confirmed homoplasmy and stable integration of transgenes. CTB-AMA1 and CTB-MSP1 fusion proteins accumulated up to 13.17% and 10.11% (total soluble protein, TSP) in tobacco and up to 7.3% and 6.1% (TSP) in lettuce respectively. Nine groups of mice (n = 10/group) were immunized subcutaneously (SQV) or orally (ORV) with purified antigens or transplastomic tobacco leaves. Significant levels of antigen-specific antibody titres of immunized mice completely inhibited proliferation of the malarial parasite and cross-reacted with the native parasite proteins in immunoblots and immunofluorescence studies. Protection against cholera toxin challenge in both ORV (100%) and SQV (89%) mice correlated with CTB-specific titres of intestinal, serum IgA and IgG1 in ORV and only IgG1 in SQV mice, but no other immunoglobulin. Increasing numbers of interleukin-10+ T cell but not Foxp3+ regulatory T cells, suppression of interferon-γ and absence of interleukin-17 were observed in protected mice, suggesting that immunity is conferred via the Tr1/Th2 immune response. Dual immunity against two major infectious diseases provided by chloroplast-derived vaccine antigens for long-term (\u3e300 days, 50% of mouse life span) offers a realistic platform for low cost vaccines and insight into mucosal and systemic immunity

Spirocyclic chromanes exhibit antiplasmodial activities and inhibit all intraerythrocytic life cycle stages

AbstractWe screened a collection of synthetic compounds consisting of natural-product-like substructural motifs to identify a spirocyclic chromane as a novel antiplasmodial pharmacophore using an unbiased cell-based assay. The most active spirocyclic compound UCF 201 exhibits a 50% effective concentration (EC50) of 350 nM against the chloroquine-resistant Dd2 strain and a selectivity over 50 using human liver HepG2 cells. Our analyses of physicochemical properties of UCF 201 showed that it is in compliance with Lipinski's parameters and has an acceptable physicochemical profile. We have performed a limited structure-activity-relationship study with commercially available chromanes preserving the spirocyclic motif. Our evaluation of stage specificities of UCF 201 indicated that the compound is early-acting in blocking parasite development at ring, trophozoite and schizont stages of development as well as merozoite invasion. SPC is an attractive lead candidate scaffold because of its ability to act on all stages of parasite's aexual life cycle unlike current antimalarials

Melatonin-Induced Temporal Up-Regulation of Gene Expression Related to Ubiquitin/Proteasome System (UPS) in the Human Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum

There is an increasing understanding that melatonin and the ubiquitin/ proteasome system (UPS) interact to regulate multiple cellular functions. Post-translational modifications such as ubiquitination are important modulators of signaling processes, cell cycle and many other cellular functions. Previously, we reported a melatonin-induced upregulation of gene expression related to ubiquitin/proteasome system (UPS) in Plasmodium falciparum, the human malaria parasite, and that P. falciparum protein kinase 7 influences this process. This implies a role of melatonin, an indolamine, in modulating intraerythrocytic development of the parasite. In this report we demonstrate by qPCR analysis, that melatonin induces gene upregulation in nine out of fourteen genes of the UPS, consisting of the same set of genes previously reported, between 4 to 5 h after melatonin treatment. We demonstrate that melatonin causes a temporally controlled gene expression of UPS members

Plasmodium falciparum NIMA-related kinase Pfnek-1: sex specificity and assessment of essentiality for the erythrocytic asexual cycle

The Plasmodium falciparum kinome includes a family of four protein kinases (Pfnek-1 to -4) related to the NIMA (never-in-mitosis) family, members of which play important roles in mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotic cells. Only one of these, Pfnek-1, which we previously characterized at the biochemical level, is expressed in asexual parasites. The other three (Pfnek-2, -3 and -4) are expressed predominantly in gametocytes, and a role for nek-2 and nek-4 in meiosis has been documented. Here we show by reverse genetics that Pfnek-1 is required for completion of the asexual cycle in red blood cells and that its expression in gametocytes in detectable by immunofluorescence in male (but not in female) gametocytes, in contrast with Pfnek-2 and Pfnek-4. This indicates that the function of Pfnek-1 is non-redundant with those of the other members of the Pfnek family and identifies Pfnek-1 as a potential target for antimalarial chemotherapy. A medium-throughput screen of a small-molecule library provides proof of concept that recombinant Pfnek-1 can be used as a target in drug discovery

Resistance to a protein farnesyltransferase inhibitor in Plasmodium falciparum

The post-translational farnesylation of proteins serves to anchor a subset of intracellular proteins to membranes in eukaryotic organisms and also promotes protein-protein interactions. Inhibition of protein farnesyltransferase (PFT) is lethal to the pathogenic protozoa Plasmodium falciparum. Parasites were isolated that were resistant to BMS-388891, a tetrahydroquinoline (THQ) PFT inhibitor. Resistance was associated with a 12-fold decrease in drug susceptibility. Genotypic analysis revealed a single point mutation in the beta subunit in resistant parasites. The resultant tyrosine 837 to cysteine alteration in the beta subunit corresponded to the binding site for the THQ and peptide substrate. Biochemical analysis of Y837C-PFT demonstrated a 13-fold increase in BMS-388891 concentration necessary for inhibiting 50% of the enzyme activity. These data are consistent with PFT as the target of BMS-388891 in P. falciparum and suggest that PFT inhibitors should be combined with other antimalarial agents for effective therapy

An atypical cyclin-dependent kinase controls Plasmodium falciparum proliferation rate

Malaria parasites multiply in human erythrocytes through schizogony, a process characterised by nuclear divisions in the absence of cytokinesis, leading to the formation of a multinucleated schizont from which individual daughter cells are subsequently generated. Here, we provide evidence that parasites lines lacking Pfcrk-5, an atypical cyclin-dependent kinase, display a reduced parasitemia growth rate linked to a decrease in the number of daughter nuclei produced by each schizont. We show that in vitro activity of recombinant Pfcrk-5 is indeed cyclin-dependent and that the enzyme localises to the nuclear periphery. Thus, Pfcrk-5 is part of a regulatory pathway that mediates the proliferation rate of Plasmodium falciparum through the control of nuclear divisions during schizogony

Chemotherapeutics Of Neglected Waterborne Parasites: Current Status And Future Perspectives

Waterborne protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium and Giardia cause diarrheal diseases worldwide. Cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis cause significant disease burden and economic impact much of the developed world and their treatment options are limited. These diseases are, therefore, included in the World Health Organization neglected disease initiative. These protozoans are also included as bioterrorism agents because of their potential ability for large-scale contamination of water supplies. This mini review discusses ways for therapeutic options to control the diseases caused by these parasites