Effect of Zinc Oxide, Zinc Hydroxychloride, and Tri-basic Copper Chloride on Nursery Pig Performance

A total of 1,215 pigs (PIC 1050 × 280; initially 11.7 lb BW) were used in a 42-d growth trial to determine the effects of ZnO, Zn hydroxychloride (IntelliBond Z; IBZ), and tri-basic copper chloride (IntelliBond C; IBC) on growth performance of nursery pigs. Pigs were allotted by pen weight and assigned to 1 of 5 dietary treatments. Treatments consisted of added Zn as ZnO (3,000 ppm in phase 1 and 2,000 ppm in phase 2); Zn hydroxychloride (IBZ; 1,000 ppm in phase 1 and phase 2); and Cu as tri-basic copper chloride (200 ppm), alone or in combination, as follows: 1) Cu only; 2) ZnO only; 3) ZnO and Cu; 4) IBZ only; and 5) IBZ and Cu. Experimental diets were fed from d 0 to 21. From d 21 to 42, pigs were fed a common diet that contained 200 ppm Cu from tri-basic copper chloride but no additional Zn other than that provided by the trace mineral premix. From d 0 to 21, there was a tendency (P = 0.073) for interaction between Zn source and Cu for ADG, where the addition of Cu to ZnO diets increased ADG; whereas, adding Cu to IBZ diets decreased ADG. Pigs fed added ZnO had greater ADFI (P = 0.018), ADG (P = 0.033), and BW on d 21 (P = 0.042) than those fed added IBZ. From d 21 to 42, pigs previously fed diets with ZnO had greater ADFI (P = 0.040) and a tendency (P = 0.071) for poorer F/G than those previously fed Cu only. Overall, feeding diets with ZnO resulted in greater ADFI (P = 0.026) compared to feeding the diet with Cu only. There was a tendency (P = 0.053) for decreased removal rate when IBZ was added to the diet compared to only adding Cu. Overall, pigs fed diets with ZnO had greater ADFI (P = 0.048) and a tendency (P = 0.074) for increased ADG compared to pigs fed diets with added IBZ. Feed cost marginally increased (P = 0.064) with the addition of ZnO compared to IBZ. Diets with ZnO resulted in greater feed cost (P = 0.018) and a tendency for higher revenue (P = 0.062) compared to the diet with Cu only. Similarly, diets with added IBZ resulted in tendencies for greater feed cost (P = 0.070), revenue (P = 0.052), and income over feed cost (IOFC) (P = 0.071) compared to the diet with Cu only. The results suggest that there are no additive effects of Zn and Cu and no major differences in performance between pigs fed diets with added Zn or Cu. Pigs fed diets with higher levels of ZnO had improved performance compared to those fed added IBZ

Using Caloric Efficiency to Estimate the Energy Value of Soybean Meal Relative to Corn and Its Effects on Growth Performance of Nursery Pigs

An experiment was conducted to estimate the energy value of soybean meal (SBM) relative to corn and determine the effects of increasing amounts of SBM in nursery pig diets. A total of 2,233 pigs (PIC 337 × 1050, Hendersonville, TN), initially 24.2 lb body weight (BW), were placed in 92 pens with 20 to 27 mixed gender pigs per pen. After weaning, pigs were fed common diets for 21 d and then assigned to treatments in a randomized complete block design with BW as the blocking factor. Treatment diets consisted of 21, 27, 33, or 39% SBM, obtained by changing the amount of feed-grade amino acids (AA) and corn, and were fed for 21 d. Soybean meal NE value used in diet formulation was 947 kcal/lb. There were 23 replicates per treatment. Pigs were weighed and feed disappearance measured to calculate average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), feed efficiency (F/G), and caloric efficiency (CE). Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS with block as a random effect and treatment as a fixed effect. Single degree-of-freedom contrasts were constructed to test the linear and quadratic effects of increasing SBM. There was a tendency (P = 0.090) for a quadratic response for ADG, with an improvement observed up to 33% SBM. There was a tendency (linear, P = 0.092) for a decrease in ADFI as dietary SBM increased. Pigs fed diets with increasing SBM had a tendency (quadratic, P = 0.066) for an improvement in F/G up to 33% SBM then returned to control values when 39% SBM was fed. There was an improvement (linear, P = 0.001; quadratic, P = 0.065) in CE with increasing SBM. Using CE as a means to estimate the energy content of SBM relative to corn, a value of 105.4% of corn energy or 1,277 kcal/lb NE was determined using all 4 data points. When removing the CE value of the 39% SBM treatment due to the quadratic tendency and just using the linear portion of the CE response, SBM was estimated to have 121.1% of corn energy or 1,468 kcal/lb NE. In conclusion, the results of the current study suggest that feeding SBM up to 33% improves ADG, F/G, and CE. The energy value of SBM is estimated between 105 and 121% of corn, much greater than the current suggested value of 78% of corn. This has important ramifications as it increases the value of SBM in diet formulation

Effects of Increasing Zinc, Using Zn Hydroxychloride, on Growth Performance, Carcass Characteristics, and Economic Return of Pigs Housed in a Commercial Environment

A total of 2,430 pigs (PIC 337 × 1050; initially 66.3 lb BW) were used in a 113-d growth trial to determine the effects of increasing Zn on growth performance and carcass characteristics of finishing pigs. Two barns were used for a total of 18 pens per treatment with 27 pigs per pen. Pigs were allotted by average initial BW and assigned to 1 of 5 dietary treatments consisting of 50, 87.5, 125, 162.5, or 200 ppm added Zn from Zn hydroxychloride (Intellibond Z, Micronutrients, Indianapolis, IN). Experimental diets were fed from d 0 to 113 in 5 phases and contained a trace mineral premix that did not contain any added Zn. Overall (d 0 to 113), there were marginally significant quadratic responses in ADFI (P = 0.073) and F/G (P = 0.067), with the lowest ADFI and best F/G observed when 87.5 and 125 ppm of Zn were fed, respectively. There was no evidence for differences in carcass characteristics (P \u3e 0.10). Regarding economic effects, there was a marginally significant (P = 0.075) quadratic response in feed cost per pig and feed cost per pound of gain (P = 0.088). The lowest feed cost per pig and feed cost per pound of gain were observed when 87.5 and 125 ppm of Zn was fed, respectively. In conclusion, there were no improvements in ADG when feeding beyond 50 ppm added Zn; however, feeding 125 ppm Zn resulted in the best F/G

Effects of Soybean Meal Level on Growth Performance of 25- to 50-lb Nursery Pigs

Four experiments were conducted to determine the effects of increasing soybean meal (SBM) level in diets with or without 25% distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) on growth performance of nursery pigs raised in university or commercial facilities. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 3 factorial with main effects of SBM (27.5, 32.5, or 37.5% of the diet) and DDGS (0 or 25% of the diet). A total of 296, 2,502, 4,118, and 711 pigs initially 23.2, 25.7, 27.5, and 27.1 lb body weight (BW) were used in Exp. 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. There were 10, 16, 13, and 12 replicates per treatment in Exp. 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. After weaning, pigs were fed common diets for approximately 21 d. Then, pens of pigs were assigned to treatments in a randomized complete block design with BW as the blocking factor and experimental diets were fed for 21 d. Pigs were weighed and feed disappearance measured to calculate average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), feed-to-gain ratio (F/G), and caloric efficiency (CE). Pigs used in all experiments did not undergo major health challenges during the experimental period and due to the low number of mortality and cull events, statistical analysis was not performed on these variables. The average cull rate was 0.7, 0.5, 0.2, and 0% and the mortality rate was 0.7, 0.3, 0.4, and 0% in Exp. 1 to 4, respectively. There were interactions (P ≤ 0.031) between SBM and DDGS for F/G and CE in Exp. 2 and for ADG and ADFI in Exp. 3. These were mostly driven by increasing SBM negatively affecting performance in a greater magnitude when diets contained DDGS compared to diets without DDGS. The main effects of DDGS and SBM were more consistently observed across experiments. Pigs fed diets with 25% DDGS had decreased (P ≤ 0.001) ADG and ADFI in all experiments as well as poorer (P ≤ 0.025) F/G and CE except for Exp. 3. Feeding increasing amounts of SBM generally did not result in any major impact in ADG, but consistently improved (linear, P ≤ 0.078) F/G and CE across experiments. The mechanism for this response is unclear but could be driven by intrinsic components of SBM, such as isoflavones, or by underestimation of SBM energy value

Effects of Insoluble Fiber Source (Cellulose or Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles) on Growth Performance of Nursery Pigs

A total of 3,171 weanling pigs (PIC 327 × L42) with an initial body weight (BW) of 12.7 lb were used in a 39-d study with 66 or 67 pigs per fence-line feeder (experimental unit) and 12 replicates per treatment. Pens were blocked by BW and allotted to 1 of 4 dietary treatments in a randomized complete block design. The treatment structure was a 2 × 2 factorial with 0 or 1% cellulose (Arbocel, J. Rettenmaier USA, Schoolcraft, MI) and distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS; 0 or 5% in Phase 1 and 0 or 15% in Phase 2). Dietary phases 1 and 2 were offered from d 0 to 10 and 10 to 25, respectively. From d 25 to 39, pigs received a common diet with 25% DDGS. Growth performance, pig removals, and economic variables were evaluated. From d 0 to 25, there was an interaction between cellulose and DDGS (P = 0.040) for average daily gain (ADG). Pigs fed diets with DDGS and cellulose had lower ADG than those fed diets without DDGS, with pigs fed diets with DDGS without the addition of cellulose having intermediate ADG. From d 25 to 39, there was a marginally significant interaction (P = 0.080) for average daily feed intake (ADFI). Pigs previously fed diets without DDGS and with cellulose had higher ADFI than those fed diets with DDGS and cellulose, and pigs previously fed diets without cellulose had similar ADFI regardless of DDGS inclusion. In the overall period (d 0 to 39), there was an interaction between cellulose and DDGS (P = 0.021) for ADG, similar to d 0 to 25. There was a marginally significant interaction (P = 0.070) for pig removals. Adding cellulose to diets without DDGS resulted in numerical decrease in pig removals, but the inclusion of cellulose to diets with DDGS resulted in increased pig removals. For economics, an interaction was observed between cellulose and DDGS for income over feed cost (IOFC; P = 0.014). Pigs fed diets without DDGS and with the addition of cellulose had higher IOFC compared to pigs fed diets with DDGS and cellulose, with other treatments being intermediate. In summary, the addition of cellulose to diets without DDGS resulted in slight improvements in pig removals and economic variables, with no evidence of impact on growth performance. The reduction in performance observed when cellulose was added to diets that contained DDGS may be due to a negative effect of the high fiber level

Evaluating the Productive Energy Content of High-Protein Distillers Dried Grains in Swine Diets

A total of 300 pigs (DNA 400 × 200), initially 24.5 lb, were used in a study to evaluate the effects of increasing amounts of high-protein distillers dried grains (HP DDG) on growth performance, and to estimate the productive energy of HP DDG. Pens were allocated with 5 pigs each and fed a common diet for 21 d after weaning. Then, pens were assigned to treatments in a randomized complete block design. There were 5 treatments with 12 pen replicates per treatment. Treatments consisted of 0, 10, 20, 30, or 40% HP DDG. Pigs were weighed weekly for 21 d to evaluate average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed efficiency (F/G). Caloric efficiency was obtained by multiplying ADFI by kcal of net energy (NE) per lb of diet and dividing by ADG. Productive energy was estimated based on caloric efficiency relative to the diet without HP DDG. Data were analyzed with the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS with block as a random effect and pen as the experimental unit. From d 0 to 7 and 7 to 14, increasing amounts of HP DDG linearly decreased (P \u3c 0.01) ADG, which was mainly driven by lower (linear, P \u3c 0.01) ADFI. The inclusion of HP DDG negatively impacted (linear; P \u3c 0.01) F/G from d 0 to 7 with no evidence for differences from d 7 to 14 (P ≥ 0.321). From d 14 to 21, there was a decrease (linear, P \u3c 0.01) in ADFI and improvement (linear, P = 0.029) in F/G as HP DDG inclusion increased. Overall (d 0 to 21), pigs fed diets with increasing HP DDG had a linear decrease (P \u3c 0.01) in ADG, ADFI, and final body weight. There was a tendency for a quadratic response (P = 0.051) in F/G, with the best F/G observed for pigs fed diets with 40% HP DDG. There was a linear reduction (P \u3c 0.01) in caloric efficiency with increasing amounts of HP DDG, indicating an underestimation of HP DDG NE. The productive energy of HP DDG was estimated as 1,218 kcal/lb or 97.3% of corn NE

Improving Performance of Finishing Pigs with Added Valine, Isoleucine, and Tryptophan: Validating a Meta-Analysis Model

Based on a recent meta-analysis, we hypothesized that increased dietary Val, Ile, or Trp could correct possible amino acid interactions caused by high dietary Leu in diets containing high levels of corn protein, namely dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS). A total of 1,200 pigs (PIC TR4 × (Fast LW × PIC L02); initially 74.0 ± 1.38 lb) were used in a 103-d study. The 6 dietary treatments were corn-soybean meal- DDGS-based diets as follows: 1) low level of Lys-HCl (HSBM), 2) high Lys-HCl and moderate Ile, Val, Trp (NC; AA above NRC4 estimates), 3) moderate Lys-HCl and high Ile, Val, Trp (PC), and 4) PC with either increased L-Val (PC+Val), 5) L-Ile (PC+Ile), or 6) L-Trp (PC+Trp). Diets contained 30% DDGS until pigs reached approximately 217 lb, and then pigs were fed diets with 20% DDGS until market. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design using the lmer function in the lme4 package in R with pen considered as the experimental unit, body weight, and pen location as a blocking factor, and treatment as a fixed effect with 10 replicates/treatment. In the grower period, ADG was greater (P \u3c 0.05) for the pigs fed HSBM and PC+Val diets than the NC with PC, PC+Ile, and PC+Trp intermediate. Pigs fed HSBM were more (P \u3c 0.05) efficient than the NC and PC with PC+Val, PC+Ile, and PC+Trp being intermediate. In the late finisher period, ADG was greater (P \u3c 0.05) for pigs fed PC+Ile than that of the NC with HSBM, PC, PC+Val, and PC+Trp intermediate. Pigs fed PC+Val had greater (P \u3c 0.05) ADFI than the NC with HSBM, PC, PC+Ile, and PC+Trp being intermediate. However, PC+Ile pigs were more (P \u3c 0.05) efficient than PC+Val pigs with HSBM, NC, PC, and PC+Trp being intermediate. Overall, final body weight (BW), average daily gain (ADG), and hot carcass weight (HCW) were greater (P \u3c 0.05) for pigs fed HSBM, PC+Val, and PC+Ile diets than the NC with PC and PC+Trp intermediate. Pigs fed the PC+Val diet had greater (P \u3c 0.05) average daily feed intake (ADFI) than the NC with pigs fed HSBM, PC, PC+Ile, and PC+Trp intermediate. No differences were detected between treatments for overall F/G or other carcass characteristics. In conclusion, increasing Val or Ile in high Lys- HCl-DDGS-based diets improved growth performance and final BW compared with pigs fed diets containing high levels of Lys-HCl without added Val and Ile. These results demonstrate that the negative effects of high Leu concentrations in corn-DDGS-based diets can be corrected by increasing the ratios of Val and Ile to Lys

Effect of Chromium Propionate Level and Feeding Regimen on Finishing Pig Growth Performance and Carcass Characteristics

A total of 1,206 pigs (PIC 359 × 1050; initial BW = 107.9 lb) were used in an 84-d study to evaluate the effects of added dietary chromium (Cr; KemTRACE chromium propionate, Kemin Industries Inc., Des Moines, IA) and feeding regimen on growth performance of finishing pigs housed under commercial conditions. Pigs were placed in mixed-gender pens (27 pigs per pen), blocked by BW, and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 dietary treatments (15 pens per treatment). Diets were corn-soybean meal-based with added dried distillers gains with solubles, and were fed in 4 phases. Treatments were: 1) control, no Cr in grower or finisher formulas; 2) 200 ppb of Cr fed in both grower and finisher; and 3) 200 ppb of Cr fed in grower and 100 ppb fed in finisher. The grower phase was from 108 to 202 lb and the finisher phase was 202 to 273 lb. There was no evidence (P ≥ 0.197) of treatment differences in the grower period. In the finishing period, added Cr resulted in a marginally significant increase (linear; P = 0.061) in ADG (2.03, 2.02, 2.08 ± 0.022 lb/d; 0, 100, 200 ppb added Cr, respectively) with no evidence of an effect (P ≥ 0.148) on ADFI and F/G. For the overall period, there was marginal significance that at least one treatment differed from another (P = 0.086) for ADG. When compared directly, addition of 200 ppb Cr in both grower and finisher increased (P = 0.037) ADG, compared to control with pigs fed 200 ppb added Cr fed in grower, followed by 100 ppb fed in finisher intermediate (1.97, 1.98, and 2.01 ± 0.013 lb/d; 0, 200/100, and 200/200 ppb added Cr, respectively). There was no evidence (P ≥ 0.526) of differences in overall ADFI and F/G. Percentage carcass yield was reduced (P = 0.018) in pigs fed 200 ppb added Cr for both the grower and finishing periods compared to other treatments. There was no evidence of differences (P ≥ 0.206) in HCW, loin depth, backfat, or percentage lean between treatments. In summary, adding 200 ppb of Cr in both grower and finisher formulas increased finishing ADG, led to a marginally significant improvement in overall ADG, but reduced carcass yield

Effect of Calsporin on Nursing Piglet Growth Performance and Fecal Microflora

A total of 26 lactating sows (DNA 241, DNA Genetics, Columbus, NE) and litters were used in a discovery study to evaluate the effects of Calsporin, a direct-fed microbial containing Bacillus subtilis C-3102, on fecal microflora of nursing pigs. The treatments consisted of providing a daily oral dose of Calsporin or a placebo control to piglets during the nursing phase. Sows were randomly assigned to treatments based on farrowing date, parity, and initial BW. The treatments were applied individually to piglets once a day from d 2 after farrowing and equalization until weaning on d 19. Sow BW, sow ADFI, piglet BW, piglet weight gain, litter size, and mortality were recorded on a weekly basis until weaning. Fecal scoring was conducted to categorize the consistency of the feces using a numerical scale from 1 to 5. Also, fecal samples were collected directly from the rectum of the piglets and pooled by litter for microbial analysis. Fecal scoring and microbial analysis were performed on d 2 after birth, and after 1 or 2 weeks of treatment. As expected, and not a primary objective of this study, there was no evidence for differences among treatments on sow and litter performance (P \u3e 0.085). There was no evidence for differences on fecal score at the beginning of the trial and after 1 or 2 weeks of Calsporin supplementation (P \u3e 0.358). Microbial analysis revealed an increase in levels of total Bacillus sp. (P \u3c 0.001) and a decrease in total aerobes (P \u3c 0.026) in litters treated with Calsporin. There was no evidence for differences in number of Lactobacillus sp., Enterococcus sp., Clostridium perfringens, Enterobacteriaceae, and total anaerobes between control- and Calsporin-treated litters (P \u3e 0.05). In conclusion, once per day supplementation of Calsporin to nursing pigs resulted in slight changes in fecal microflora, but there was no influence on nursing pig fecal consistency

Effects of Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles Sources and Soybean Meal Level on Growth Performance of Late Nursery Pigs

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) source and soybean meal (SBM) level on growth performance of late nursery pigs. A total of 1,064 and 1,011 pigs (PIC 280 × 1050), initially 23.1 and 24.1 lb body weight (BW), were used in Exp. 1 and 2, respectively, with 21 to 27 pigs per pen. For approximately 21 days after weaning, pigs were fed common phase 1 and 2 diets. Then, pens were assigned to treatments in a randomized complete block design. There were 6 treatments in each experiment with 7 pens per treatment. Treatments 1 to 5 were replicated in Exp. 1 and 2, whereas treatment 6 was fed only in Exp. 1 and treatment 7 was fed only in Exp. 2. Treatments 1 to 3 consisted of diets with 23% conventional DDGS (Valero, Aurora, SD) and 21, 27, or 35% SBM. Treatments 4 and 5 were corn-SBM-based diets with 27 or 35% SBM. Treatment 6 consisted of a corn-SBM-based diet with 20% high protein DDGS (HP DDGS; Purestream 40, Lincolnway Energy, LLC, Nevada, IA) replacing the 23% conventional DDGS with the same amount of SBM (21%) as treatment 1 and same neutral detergent fiber (NDF) as treatment 2. Finally, treatment 7 consisted of a diet similar to treatment 2 but with 23% Lincolnway DDGS (Lincolnway Energy, LLC, Nevada, IA) replacing the 23% conventional DDGS. Data were analyzed with the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. There was no evidence for treatment × experiment interactions, thus data from treatments 1 to 5 were combined. In Exp. 1, pigs fed diets containing HP DDGS had decreased (P \u3c 0.01) average daily gain (ADG) and poorer (P \u3c 0.01) feed-to-gain ratio (F/G) compared to pigs fed diets with conventional DDGS at the same NDF level, conventional DDGS at the same SBM level, or corn-SBM diet. In Exp. 2, there was no evidence for differences (P \u3e 0.10) in performance of pigs fed diets with Lincolnway DDGS or conventional DDGS. Feeding diets with 23% conventional DDGS decreased (P = 0.033) average daily feed intake (ADFI) and improved (P = 0.033) F/G compared to corn-SBM-based diets. Finally, ADG increased (linear, P = 0.001) and F/G improved (quadratic, P = 0.007) as SBM level increased from 21 to 35%. In conclusion, decreased growth performance indicates that the nutrient profile of the HP DDGS may have been overestimated. The net energy of conventional and Lincolnway DDGS seemed to be underestimated due to the improved F/G compared to corn-SBM diets. Finally, feeding diets with increasing SBM resulted in improved growth performance in late nursery pigs