Conspiracy and revolutionary dictatorship in the ideology of Russian Populism, 1861-1881

Revolutionary conspiracies, abortive and successful, have stirred man's mind since the beginnings of governments. Theorizing on the nature of political dictatorship goes back at least to Plato. It is the ideological linking of these two activities—the plot of a "revolutionary" party to overthrow an existing government, and the establishment of a "dictatorship" by that party in the aftermath of the revolution--, within the framework of the Revolutionary Populist movement in Russia in the 1860's and 1870's that constitutes the thesis of this paper. The French Revolution, with its Jacobin Terror (1793-4) and the "Conspiracy of Equals" of Gracchus Babeuf (1796), offers the most convenient starting point for modern historical research into revolutionary dictatorships and secret society activity. It is conclusively established by the writings of Russian revolutionary figures that the revolutionary events in Prance in the 1790’s, 1830's, and 1840’s share priority with the Russian peasant rebellions of Stenka Razin (l670-1) and Emelyan Pugachev (1773-5) in the influence exerted upon the young radicals of nineteenth century Russia.

Establishment of an Intradermal Ear Injection Model of IL-17A and IL-36γ as a Tool to Investigate the Psoriatic Cytokine Network

Psoriasis is a chronic skin disease affecting 2–3% of the global population. The proinflammatory IL-17A is a key cytokine in psoriasis. Accumulating evidence has revealed that IL-36γ plays also a pathogenic role. To understand more precisely the role of the IL-17A–IL-36γ cytokine network in skin pathology, we used an ear injection model. We injected IL-17A or IL-36γ alone and in combination into the ear pinnae of mice. This resulted in a significant increase in ear thickness measured over time. Histological evaluation of IL-17A + IL-36γ-treated skin showed a strong acanthosis, hyperparakeratosis and infiltration of neutrophils. The same histological features were found in mice after injection of IL-36γ alone, but to a lesser extent. IL-17A alone was not able to induce psoriasis-like changes. Genes encoding proteins of the S100 family, antimicrobial peptides and chemo-attractants for neutrophils were upregulated in the IL-17A + IL-36γ group. A much weaker expression was seen after the injection of each cytokine alone. These results strengthen the hypothesis that IL-17A and IL-36γ drive psoriatic inflammation via a synergistic interaction. Our established intradermal ear injection model can be utilized in the future to monitor effects of various inhibitors of this cytokine network