Stabbed to death. An osteobiography example of violence among Longobards (Povegliano Veronese, Italy, 6th-8th c CE)

Here we report the reconstruction of the osteobiography of an adult male buried in the Longobard cemetery of Povegliano Veronese (Northern Italy, late 6th – early 8th century CE), who shows signs of interpersonal violence. The palaeopathological investigation reveals sharp force traumas on the body of the fourth lumbar vertebra and on two right ribs. The absence of signs of healing or bone remodelling indicates that the defects were perimortem. The injuries probably afected vital organs, leading to death. Further macroscopic observations of the skeleton suggest horseback-riding activity. Strontium isotope data from tooth enamel indicate a non-local origin of the individual. X ray and CT scan acquisition and Scanning Electron Microscopy analyses were performed to investigate the bone defects. His osteobiography was interpreted and contextualised in the complex socio-political scenario of post classical Italy. The results document that he spent his childhood outside the Povegliano Veronese area, that during his life he was likely a horseback rider active in battle, but that his violent death did not happen during warfare/battle. This multi-layered approach, supported by archaeological information, osteological investigation, biomolecular analysis, and virtual imagery, allowed for the extensive reconstruction of an individual's life history

Morphometric maps of bilateral asymmetry in the human humerus : An implementation in the R package morphomap

In biological anthropology, parameters relating to cross-sectional geometry are calculated in paired long bones to evaluate the degree of lateralization of anatomy and, by inference, function. Here, we describe a novel approach, newly added to the morphomap R package, to assess the lateralization of the distribution of cortical bone along the entire diaphysis. The sample comprises paired long bones belonging to 51 individuals (10 females and 41 males) from The New Mexico Decedent Image Database with known biological profile, occupational and loading histories. Both males and females show a pattern of right lateralization. In addition, males are more lateralized than females, whereas there is not a significant association between lateralization with occupation and loading history. Body weight, height and long-bone length are the major factors driving the emergence of asymmetry in the humerus, while interestingly, the degree of lateralization decreases in the oldest individuals

Stabbed by a blade during the barbarian invasions: the case of multiple perimortem traumas from an Italian Longobard cemetery (6th-8th c. CE)

Interpersonal violence reveals implications in behaviour, mobility, lifestyle and health of past human populations. These implications are even more visible when seen in relation to historical periods that were characterized by immigration or invasion, with the resulting economic, social and political instability. The archaeological evidence of the Longobard cemetery of Povegliano Veronese (Veneto, Northern Italy), brackets the cemetery between the 6th and 8th c. CE. Over 240 skeletons were recovered within the funerary area. Among them, there is the skeleton of a Longobard male aged 40-50 years, showing multiple perimortem injuries without signs of healing. Deep sharp-force traumas are located in the ventral portion of the 5th lumbar vertebra and in four right ribs, likely caused by a blade. From macroscopic and micro-CT observations, we could assess that none of these injuries show signs of bone remodeling or healing. This condition suggests that the sharp-force traumas were perimortem. SEM microscopy will allow to investigate the possible presence of metal remains of the alleged weapon. The case-study reported here sheds light on an aspect of Germanic immigrations from Northern Europe to Italy in the Early Middle Ages, while critically contributing to our understanding of interpersonal violence in the post-classical world

An integrated approach to the study of long bone morphology and cortical thickness distribution

Past human populations have been characterized by high levels of mobility in contrast with recent populations. From the literature, the reconstruction of mobility and physical activity levels are performed by measuring the biomechanical performance of long at the mid-shaft [1-2]. Over recent decades it has become increasingly clear how complex is the mechanism of bone modelling and remodelling, and that several factors are involved [1,3]. However, it is still unclear what effect do body proportions, physical activity and sexual dimorphism and age have on long bone morphology. Here, we used geometric morphometrics and morphometric maps of cortical thickness to analyse the morphology and the diaphyseal shape of the tibia and femur from a sample of recently deceased modern humans [4]. The dataset includes information on each individual in relation to sex, age, weight, stature, biomechanical length and occupational level. Despite traditional methods of investigation (analysis limited to a few cross-sections) we extensively analysed variations along the diaphysis by applying morphomap R methods [5] which allow to study the entire diaphysis of the bone with a high degree of details. On each of the long bones we extracted 61 cross-sections along the diaphysis from the 20% to the 80% of the total biomechanical length. Each cross-section is defined by 40 pairs of equiangular semilandmarks on the periosteal and on the endosteal contour. The set of 61 cross-sections was used to build a dataset of shape variables and matrices of cortical thickness. A significant correlation by Procrustes ANOVA was observed in both femurs and tibiae with the sex variable (p=0.026 for femurs and p=0.001 for tibiae). Partial Least Squares analysis shows a statistically significant correlation between age and biomechanical length in the femur. In females we found a strong correlation with age in femurs, but the same result is not observed in males. The different results between the sexes may be related to the occurrence of osteoporosis in women which has a marked impact on the femurs. This suggests that the tibia might be more reliable than the femur in the study of mobility because it is less influenced by age. In this communication, we show the potential of using an integrated approach to the extensive study of the diaphysis combining morphometry and biomechanics. This approach is reliable for assessing diaphysis bone morphology not only in modern humans or archaeological remains but has a great potential interest in paleoanthropological and primate studies in reconstructing past loading history

Quantifying the lateralization in the upper limb of historical human populations: a detailed study of the cortical bone distribution in the humeral diaphysis

The study of long bone morphology in modern human and fossils hominins plays a central role in understanding the pattern of physical activity during the life of individuals and, by extension, to the more general living conditions of populations [1]. The investigation of long bones robusticity and shape allows to reconstruct long-term repeated stress, due to occupational or physical activities. The remodelling of the cortical bone of the diaphysis is due to a skeletal response to biomechanical loadings during lifespan. Several studies [2],[3] have noted males showing a higher degree of bilateral asymmetry in the humerus than females; this observation has been related to sex-specific differences in activities and division of labour. In this study we investigate the pattern of distribution of the cortical bone in the humeral diaphysis in an explorative sample including 12 individuals (10 male, 2 female and 1 indeterminate) with both right and left humeri acquired via Computerized Tomography. It represents a preliminary approach to the study of the variability between population from early Middle Ages in Italy. On each humerus we extracted 61 cross sections along the diaphysis from the 20% to the 80% of the total biomechanical length. On each cross section we calculated 48 equiangular semilandmarks: 24 on the periosteal and 24 on the endosteal contour by using the morphomap R package [4]. Then, we determined the thickness between paired semilandmarks (periosteal and endosteal) and we built morphometric maps of cortical thickness for each individual. Eventually, we computed the difference between right and left sides and mapped the differences in morphometric maps. In this way, the diaphysis is unrolled and the differences in thickness along the direction (anterior-lateral-medial-posterior) and the longitudinal axis are reported respectively on the x and y axis. Our exploratory examination confirms the hypothesis that this sample, mainly composed of males of the working class, shows different levels of robusticity. We also notice that, in right humeri, antero-medial part of the diaphysis is thicker than in left humeri; particularly, in five individuals we found the dominance of a side (2 right dominance and 3 left). We hypothesize that the observed bilateral asymmetry is probably due to specialization in occupational activities. These preliminary results, in turn, give support to the adoption of the methodology we tentatively used here. Therefore, it can be now applied to a wider sample of populations between the Roman times and the Middle Ages

Measuring the asymmetry in long bone morphometric maps of cortical thickness: occupationrelated differences in the modern human humerus

Reconstructing the loading history in human species is crucial to understand lifestyle strategies and mobility pattern in past populations. A fundamental approach to the reconstruction of physical behaviour relies on the comparison of the differences in cortical thickness distributions among antimeres. The comparison of antimeric bones from the same individual offers the prospect of identifying asymmetry of loading and so, of activity, because genetic, systemic and environmental factors affecting bone form are the same for both sides [1]. In the present study we have tested the new morphomapAsymmetry function, an implementation of morphomap R package [2], to calculate and map asymmetry of the cortical thickness. We selected 41 male individuals and 10 female individuals from The New Mexico Decedent Image Database (NMDID) [3]. We chose only individuals ranging in age from 20 to 50 who have worked in the army, in building companies or at a desk. We tested the hypothesis that diaphyseal cortical thickness asymmetry is unrelated to occupation and sex. On each humerus we extracted 61 cross-sections along the diaphysis from 20% to 80% of the total biomechanical length. On each cross-section we calculated 48 equiangular semilandmarks: 24 on the periosteal and 24 on the endosteal contour, centred at the centre of gravity of the cross-section. The right humeri have been mirrored by using the function morphomapMirror. We measured the thickness between paired semilandmarks (periosteal and endosteal), and we built morphometric maps of cortical thickness for each individual. Eventually, we computed the difference between right and left sides and mapped the differences in morphometric maps. In this way, the diaphysis is unrolled and the differences in thickness along the direction (anterior-lateral-medial-posterior) and the longitudinal axis are reported respectively on the x and y axis. We analysed asymmetry by performing a principal component analysis on the matrices of cortical thickness of the left and right humerus. Each individual is represented by left and right morphometric maps of cortical thickness after subtracting the mean morphometric maps between sides. We calculated the pattern and magnitude of asymmetry pooled by occupation and sex. Additionally, we decomposed the total asymmetry into the “directional” and “fluctuant” components of asymmetry [4,5]. The first two PC scores account for the 33.91% of the total variance (PC1=41.05%; PC2=7.47%). PC1 is related to directional asymmetry showing a shared pattern of right-hand lateralization (except one individual left-hand lateralized). The pattern and magnitude of asymmetry among the three occupation groups are not statistically different from each other. However, the magnitude of total asymmetry is higher in army and building than desk group. The decomposition of the asymmetry into directional and fluctuant components reveals as 9.60% of the total variance is associated with directional asymmetry and 90.4% with fluctuant asymmetry. Lastly, the comparison between female and male individuals show as the pattern of asymmetry is indistinguishable. On the contrary, the magnitude of asymmetry is higher in the male subsample. The analysis of asymmetry of the cortical thickness presented here confirmed a general trend of right lateralization among the individuals belonging to the different groups of occupation. Males show a higher degree of asymmetry than females. In conclusion, these results do not falsify the hypothesis that pattern and magnitude of asymmetry differ among the occupation groups considered in this study. In perspective, recent developments in statistical analysis methods applied to the study of skeletal material show the potentiality of this approach to study the pattern of lateralization in relation to physical activity in past populations including extinct human species

Measuring the asymmetry in long bone morphometric maps of cortical thickness: occupation-related differences in the modern human humerus

Reconstructing the loading history in human species is crucial to understand lifestyle strategies and mobility pattern in past populations. A fundamental approach to the reconstruction of physical behaviour relies on the comparison of the differences in cortical thickness distributions among antimeres. The comparison of antimeric bones from the same individual offers the prospect of identifying asymmetry of loading and so, of activity, because genetic, systemic and environmental factors affecting bone form are the same for both sides [1]. In the present study we have tested the new morphomapAsymmetry function, an implementation of morphomap R package [2], to calculate and map asymmetry of the cortical thickness. We selected 41 male individuals and 10 female individuals from The New Mexico Decedent Image Database (NMDID) [3]. We chose only individuals ranging in age from 20 to 50 who have worked in the army, in building companies or at a desk. We tested the hypothesis that diaphyseal cortical thickness asymmetry is unrelated to occupation and sex. On each humerus we extracted 61 cross-sections along the diaphysis from 20% to 80% of the total biomechanical length. On each cross-section we calculated 48 equiangular semilandmarks: 24 on the periosteal and 24 on the endosteal contour, centred at the centre of gravity of the cross-section. The right humeri have been mirrored by using the function morphomapMirror. We measured the thickness between paired semilandmarks (periosteal and endosteal), and we built morphometric maps of cortical thickness for each individual. Eventually, we computed the difference between right and left sides and mapped the differences in morphometric maps. In this way, the diaphysis is unrolled and the differences in thickness along the direction (anterior-lateral-medial-posterior) and the longitudinal axis are reported respectively on the x and y axis. We analysed asymmetry by performing a principal component analysis on the matrices of cortical thickness of the left and right humerus. Each individual is represented by left and right morphometric maps of cortical thickness after subtracting the mean morphometric maps between sides. We calculated the pattern and magnitude of asymmetry pooled by occupation and sex. Additionally, we decomposed the total asymmetry into the “directional” and “fluctuant” components of asymmetry [4,5]. The first two PC scores account for the 33.91% of the total variance (PC1=41.05%; PC2=7.47%). PC1 is related to directional asymmetry showing a shared pattern of right-hand lateralization (except one individual left-hand lateralized). The pattern and magnitude of asymmetry among the three occupation groups are not statistically different from each other. However, the magnitude of total asymmetry is higher in army and building than desk group. The decomposition of the asymmetry into directional and fluctuant components reveals as 9.60% of the total variance is associated with directional asymmetry and 90.4% with fluctuant asymmetry. Lastly, the comparison between female and male individuals show as the pattern of asymmetry is indistinguishable. On the contrary, the magnitude of asymmetry is higher in the male subsample. The analysis of asymmetry of the cortical thickness presented here confirmed a general trend of right lateralization among the individuals belonging to the different groups of occupation. Males show a higher degree of asymmetry than females. In conclusion, these results do not falsify the hypothesis that pattern and magnitude of asymmetry differ among the occupation groups considered in this study. In perspective, recent developments in statistical analysis methods applied to the study of skeletal material show the potentiality of this approach to study the pattern of lateralization in relation to physical activity in past populations including extinct human species

Severe ankylosis of the left hip in the Early Medieval Community of Selvicciola (Italy, 4th-8th Centuries CE)

The skeleton of an elderly woman from the late antique/early medieval cemetery of Selvicciola (Latium, Italy) shows severe heterotopic ossification and ankylosis of the left hip. The advanced bone remodelling deformed the acetabulum, locking the femoral head within the joint. This caused a reduction in the abduction/adduction movement of the leg and extensive eburnation of the knee joint. It is likely that her mobility was limited and painful. The cervical vertebrae, the only preserved, show pronounced osteophytes on the bodies. The severe osteoarthritis of the first five vertebrae suggests a reduced movement of the neck and acute pain. To observe the effect of ankylosis of the left hip on her mobility, we CT-scanned the lower limbs, and we applied morphometric maps of cortical thickness to both left tibia and femur. By comparing cortical bone distribution patterns in lower limb, it is possible to assess differences in biomechanical loading. The results stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis reveal her protein intake was coherent with that of the other 33 the individuals analysed from the same cemetery, which might suggest that access to food remained unchanged. Our investigation suggests that for several years this elderly woman had difficulties with walking and other movements. She was dependent on other people as a result of the progressive worsening of her condition. Despite her condition could not heal nor be cured, the community took care of her in a way that suggests social cohesion

Health care among an Early Medieval community in Italy (Selvicciola, 4th-8th centuries CE)

Caring practices provided to diseased individuals in past populations are of interest in Bioarchaeology, with increasing literature describing community effort in the provision of care. The skeletal series from the Late Antique/Early Medieval cemetery of Selvicciola (Latium, Italy), included an elderly woman who revealed heterotopic ossification and ankylosis of the left hip. The extensive bone remodelling deformed the acetabulum, locking the femoral head within the joint. This caused a reduction in abduction/adduction movement of the leg and extended eburnation on the joint surfaces of the knees. The cervical vertebrae, the only preserved, were affected by severe osteoarthritis. The presence of large osteophytes on the bodies of the first five vertebrae were indicative of acute pain and a likely reduction in movement. To assess the effect of ankylosis of the left hip and related mobility, we applied morphometric maps of cortical thickness to both tibia and femur. Diet reconstruction by stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes analysis reveals a protein intake coherent with that of the other individuals analysed from Selvicciola necropolis (n=33). Our investigation suggests that for several years this woman had difficulty moving, and a progressive worsening of her condition resulted in her becoming highly dependent on other people. Her condition could not heal, nor a cure could be provided, nonetheless the community took care of her. The combination of palaeopathological, bioarchaeological and historical data allowed us to reconstruct an osteobiography of this elderly woman, which speaks of health care as a significant part of community life in the past

Were they actually local? Strontium isotope analysis of individuals from the Roman cemetery of Lucus Feroniae (Rome, Italy)

The town of Lucus Feroniae (I-III century CE) was inhabited, according to the archaeological record, by local people, war veterans and liberti (freed slaves). The study of this community makes it therefore possible to shed light on individuals whose lives are often not reported by classical literary sources. In particular, to understand from which other parts of the Roman Empire the liberti and veterans came from. In order to answer this question, this research couples skeletal evidence and isotopic analyses. The former has highlighted six individuals from the necropolis of Lucus Feroniae who display skeletal features associated with a harsh quality of life, in particular fractures on the skull and postcranial bones, which in turn might be associated with the consequences of being a slave or a labourer. Strontium isotopic analysis has then been performed on such individuals to explore their geographic origin. Analysing the dental enamel of the first molar, it was possible to gain information about their first decade of life, approximately. A baseline was created to look at the local range of strontium isotopic ratio using bones and teeth of archaeological animals, focusing on animals that lived, supposedly, in confined areas, rather than free-ranging ones. Soil samples have also been collected for this purpose. However, in several instances local strontium ratios are similar among very distant areas. It is therefore difficult to tell whether an individual spent her/his first years of life in Lucus Feroniae or came from further-away areas. Despite the diversified geological background of Italy that might appear promising for strontium isotope analyses, our results hold up as a cautionary tale about the use of these data