Ethnopharmacology of human immunodeficiency virus in South Africa–a minireview

Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the etiologic agent of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), continues to pose an unprecedented public health problem of enormous proportions worldwide. Current treatment options for HIV/AIDS have not been satisfactory and the quest for effective curative or preventive therapies goes on. Plants are increasingly seen as an alternative source for the discovery of novel anti-HIV molecules. Africa, particularly southern Africa, endowed with a rich diversity of medicinal plants, represents the region of the world worse hit by HIV. Anecdotal evidence of the therapeutic benefits to AIDS patients of some plant-derived preparations abound. This mini-review takes a look at the evaluations of South African medicinal plants to determine their effects on HIV/AIDS, and the initial attempts at the isolation and characterization of putative anti-HIV molecules

Plesiomonas shigelloides in stool samples of patients in the Venda Region: Possible considerations on pathogenicity and antibiogram profiles

This study determined the haemolytic, haemagglutinating and antibiotic susceptibility activities of Plesiomonas shigelloides isolated from stool samples of patients attending different health centers in the Venda region of South Africa. P.shigelloides was isolated and identified using the API 20E, API 20NE systems. Antibiotic susceptibility profiles of the isolates were determined using the disc diffusion method and analyzed according to NCCLS standards. The hemolytic and hemagglutination activities of the isolates on human, sheep, pig and chicken red blood cells were determined using the plate and slide methods. A total of 89 (13%) P. shigelloide were isolated from 660 samples. The hemolytic activities of the isolates were variable with no heamolysis on sheep red cells. 33 (37%) of isolates were beta lactamase producers. There was a high level of resistance to the penicilllins with 100% resistance to Penicillin G, Amoxicillin and Ampicillin. This study has demonstrated multiple resistance to different antibiotics and production of beta lactamase. Most of the isolates showed evidence of pathogenicity as demonstrated by hemolytic and haemagglutinating activities

Survey of disinfection efficiency of small drinking water treatment plants: Challenges facing small water treatment plants in South Africa

A survey involving 181 water treatment plants across 7 provinces of South Africa: Mpumalanga, Limpopo, North West, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape and Western Cape was undertaken to identify the challenges facing small water treatment plants (SWTPs) in South Africa . Information gathered included ownership and design capacity of the plants, water sources, and various methods of disinfection, equipment currently employed and performance of the treatment plants. In general, the majority (over 80%) of the SWTPs surveyed in the designated provinces were owned by the district municipalities. The designed capacities of these plants varied between 1 and 60 M./d; the smallest capacity was 100 m3/d and the largest 120 M./d. The small water treatment plants abstracted their raw water from either surface or groundwater or a combination of both water sources with greater preponderance for surface water sources (over 86%). Water treatment practices were noted to be the conventional types mainly coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. Two types of coagulants namely polyelectrolyte (66%) and alum (18%) were commonly used by the water treatment plants across the provinces studied. Rapid gravity filtration, pressure filter and slow sand filtration systems accounted for 60%, 23% and 9% of the filtration systems across the provinces, respectively. The predominant types of disinfectants employed were chlorine gas (69%) followed by sodium (15%) and calcium (14%) hypochlorite. Over 50% of the various SWTPs did not complywith the SANS 241 Class I (< 1 NTU) and Class II (1 to 5 NTU)  recommended turbidity values. The recommended target range of 0.3 to 0.6 mg/. free chlorine residual concentrations at the point of use was not always met by 40% of the plants. Seventy percent of the SWTPs complied with the SANS 241 criteria of microbiological safety of drinking water vis-a-vis total and faecal coliforms. Operational problems affecting the efficiency of small water treatment plants included: inability to appropriately determine the flow rate, chemical dosage and turbidity, lack of chlorine residual at the point of use and lack of water quality monitoring. To produce safe drinking water, appropriate operational practices must be implemented in all small water treatment plants

Microbiological and health related perspectives of geophagia: An overview

Geophagia, which refers to the deliberate eating of soil, is considered to be a deviant eating disorder, a sequel to poverty and famine but could also be observed in the absence of hunger and in both scenarios may be associated with high degree of mortality and morbidity. The phenomenon has been reported to be common among pregnant women, lactating women, school children and people with psychiatric disorders. The microbiology of soil shows a broad diversity and functionality of soil microflora which impact variously on soil and its consumption. Soil microbes contribute immensely to the quality of soil and even determine soil types. Geophagia may be beneficial or harmful. Beneficial aspects include the use of kaolin to treat diarrhea, gastritis, colitis, enhancement of bioactivities and maintenance of normal intestinal flora by commensal flora found in soil. Clay or soil containing special constituents are valuable oral and topical antimicrobials as well as adsorbents of toxins. Microbiological underpinnings of geophagia include the ingestion of eggs of parasitic worms such as Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura with the health consequences. Highly toxigenic bacteria such as Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium botulinum, the causative agents of gas gangrene, tetanus and botulism and other human pathogens may be ingested. It has also been postulated that indirect consumption of soil may pose serious health problems. For example, nitrate run-off and leaching from soil into water bodies may lead to eutrophication and colonization by toxic cyanobacteria with ripple medical effects such as gastroenteritis. Some general health implications of geophagia include association with iron deficiency and anemia, intestinal obstruction, constipation, peritonitis, dental damage, eclampsia, iron deficiency and even mortality. The interplay of factors involved in geophagia, though varied, intricate and researched may not have been fully elucidated. Further concerted efforts aimed at multidisciplinary research are warranted so as to address gaps in the corpus of knowledge on the important subject.Keywords: Geohelminths, geophagia, health, microorganisms, soilAfrican Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 9(19), pp. 5784-5791, 10 May, 201

Activity profiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Venda communities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterial species

Fourteen plants used in traditional medicine in the Venda region of South Africa were screened for activity against fifteen bacterial species. Methanol, acetone and hexane extracts and in some cases essential oils were tested using the disc diffusion and the microdilution methods. Most of the extractswere active against at least one bacterial species. Methanol and acetone extracts were the most active while Gram positive bacteria were the most sensitive as compared to Gram negative bacteria. This study has revealed the strong in vitro activity of Syzigium cordatum, Peltophorum africanum,Rhoicissus tridentata, Bridelia micrantha and Ximenia caffra against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Essential oils of Lippia javanica was also effective against most of the bacterial species studied. However, Pouzolzia mixta and Mucuna coriaceae showed less activity. Some plants were more active than commercial antibiotics. This study is the first to test the activity of the selected plants from the Venda region against such number of bacterial isolates and justifies their use by local traditional healers. The identification of the active components of the plants and the determination of the effect of these plants on the immune system will give more information on their activity. Finally, these results may be of importance in identifying candidate plants and essential oils for eventual drug design and other therapeutic purposes, respectively

Focus on 14 sewage treatment plants in the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa in order to gauge the efficiency of wastewater treatment

In order to identify the treatment methods used in different sewage treatment plants (STPs) in the Mpumalanga Province and to determine the efficiency of wastewater treatment by these plants,municipal STPs were surveyed, and raw and treated wastewater samples collected. A total of 14 STPs were visited and the collected samples were analysed for physicochemical and microbiologicalparameters using standard methods. The treatment methods identified included ponds, activated sludge and trickling filters. The reduction of turbidity by the plants varied between 6.2 and 99.6% whileconductivity, pH and temperature varied slightly between the influent and the effluent wastewater. Thirteen (92.8%) of the plants used chlorine for disinfection of the final effluent, however only 2 (14.2%)of the plants managed to produce effluent with 0 (zero) faecal coliforms per 100 m. Common pathogenic bacteria isolated from the final effluent included Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia coli, Vibrio spp. and Enterococcus spp. The final effluent was used for irrigation and recycling purposes in 4 plants, all the other treatment plants discharged the effluent into the river or to the environment. Thepresent study indicated that there is a move toward the renovation of wastewater treatment by the municipalities in the Mpumalanga Province with the adoption of biological treatment. All the STPs reduced the turbidity of wastewater as well as the different microbial indicators counts; however, several pathogenic bacterial organisms could still be detected in the final effluent. Further studies are needed to confirm the role of the treatment procedures on nutrient reduction and elimination of other viral and parasitic pathogens by the sewage treatment plants

Prevalence, haemolysis and antibiograms of Campylobacters isolated from pigs from three farm settlements in Venda region, Limpopo province, South Africa

We investigated the prevalence, haemolytic activities and antibiotic susceptibility profiles of Campylobacter species isolated from pigs in three farms in the Venda region, Limpopo province, South Africa. During the period of investigation, which spanned over one year, 450 faeces samples from pigs comprising 150 each from the three farms were collected and appropriately transported to the base laboratory at the Department of Microbiology, University of Venda for analysis. In total, the prevalencerate of Campylobacter isolates from all three farms was 30.2%, whereas, the rates of 25 - 26% were recorded for farms X, Y and Z, respectively. Out of the isolated Campylobacter species 10 (12.5%) were identified as Campylobacter jejuni and 70(87.5%) as Campylobacter coli. Of the Campylobacter isolates from the farms, 23, 22 and 35 were â-haemolytic from farms X, Y and Z, respectively. Susceptibility of the isolates to 12 antibiotics was determined by disc diffusion technique. The overall rate of resistance determined in this study to most of the antibiotics was 84.2%. Most Campylobacter isolates from farm X (< 50%) were resistant to ciprofloxacin, cefexime, and erythromycin, while > 50% were resistant totetracycline, (54.5%) to vancomycin, (100%) to ampicillin and methicillin. The rates of resistance to these antibiotics were not significantly different from farms X and Y (p < 0.005). However, most isolates from farm Y were more resistant to ciprofloxacin (57.1%) than isolates from farm X (36.4%) and Z (40.7%). Resistance rates to tetracycline by C. coli isolated from farm Y (48%), farm Z (45.5%) and farm X (44.4%) were noted. Similar trend was observed for C. coli from farm Y (40%), farm Z (31.8%) and farm X (22.2%) for ciprofloxacin. All C. coli from farm Z showed higher level of resistance to ampicillin (100%), Y (64%) and X (55.6%). The C. jejuni isolates though few were markedly resistant to fluoroquinolone and the macrolide as well as aminoglycoside antibiotics. Most of the isolates were resistant to at least seven (7) of the antibiotics tested. These observations indicate high levels of resistance to antibiotics commonly used in the swine industry (erythromycin and tetracycline) among the C. coli and C. jejuni isolates from pigs. Erythromycin and ciprofloxacin are drugs for treatment of human campylobacteriosis. The high prevalence rate of resistance to these drugs among C. coli and C. jejuni isolates from pig faeces is of public health significance.Key word: Campylobacter, campylobacteriosis, haemolytic, susceptibility, resistance, profiles

Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Campylobacter jejuni and coli isolated from diarrheic and non-diarrheic goat faeces in Venda region, South Africa

A total of 200 freshly voided goat faeces samples were collected in the study and were examined for the presence of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. The samples were obtained randomly from 2 farm settlements in Venda region, South Africa in 2008 to 2009. All samples were analyzed with the mCCDA media with Campylobacter supplement in microaerophilic condition provided by the Campygen gas envelope (Oxoid). Of the total 200 samples, the recovery rate was 29% (58 of 200) for all samples. Of the 200 samples, 155 (77.5%) were non-diarrheic and 45 (22.5%) were diarrheic faeces. From the 45 diarrheic faces, 41 (91.1%) were positive for campylobacters and of the 155 non-diarrheic faeces, 17 (11.1%) were positive for campylobacters. In all, 58 Campylobacter species comprising 33 (56.9%) Campylobacter jejuni and 8 (13.9%) Campylobacter coli strains were from diarrheic and 2 (3.4%) C. jejuni and 15 (25.9%) C. coli were from non-diarrheic faeces. There was no statistical correlation between the incidence of C. jejuni in diarrheic faeces and non-diarrheic faeces. Rate of resistance of C. jejuni and C. coli to six regularly used antibiotics in human and veterinary campylobacteriosis; ciprofloxacin, gentamycin, ampicillin, tetracycline, nalidixic acid and erythromycin were 40.0, 47.1%, 57.1, 43.5%, 48.6, 56.5%, 42.9, 43.5%, 34.3, 34.5% and 14.3, 17.4%, respectively. In comparison, a significantly higher frequency of resistance to gentamycin was recorded among the C. jejuni and C. coli isolates (57.1 versus 43.5%) respectively, at p < 0.005 from goats in all farms. Resistance to ciprofloxacin and kanamycin was higher among the C. coli than C. jejuni strains but the difference was not statistically significant. Comparable occurrences of resistance were observed among C. jejuni and C. coli to erythromycin and nalidixic acid. High prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. in goat could be of public health significance in the Venda region. The observed multi-drug resistance and especially resistance to macrolides and fluoroquinolones in this study pose a threat of transfer of antibiotic resistance to human pathogens because of the close contact between goats and man.Key words: Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli, microaerophilic, veterinary campylobacteriosis, fluoroquinolones, Venda regio

A survey of indigenous herbal diarrhoeal remedies of O.R. Tambo district, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Indigenous health system and the use of herbal plants have been recognized as pivotal in primary health care and a system to reckon with in achieving one of the targets of the millennial goals on health.An ethnobotanical survey was conducted to identify indigenous herbal remedies for diarrhoea and associated stomach ailments in rural areas of the O.R. Tambo district municipality in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. The main objective of the study was to gather ethnomedical data onpotentially valuable indigenous medicinal plants for the eventual development of new pharmaceuticals and also emphasize the role of ethnomedicine in primary health care. The use of herbal remedies in thetreatment of diarrhoea and dysentery was investigated using interviews. The survey was conducted among traditional healers and knowledgeable local elders who use medicinal plants to treat common illnesses. Data from the survey indicated the names of plants commonly used in the treatment of diarrhoea and associated ailments, the methods of preparation, parts used and administration. A total of 32 plant species belonging to 26 families were reportedly used as diarrhoea remedy in the study area. The most predominant families of medicinal plants employed and most frequently recommended were Fabaceae (16.67%), followed by Hyacinthaceae and Hydnoraceae (8.33% each). The most commonly utilized portions of plants for medicinal purposes included roots and leaves. Other parts were corms, bulbs, tubers, fruits and bark. The methods of preparation often employed were decoctions and infusions whilst medication was frequently administered orally or as enema. Some of the plants were used singly or mixed with other plant(s) while some edible ones are consumed as food. The survey documented a diversity of plants employed as remedy for diarrhoea. Integration of this form of health care system into western medicine is warranted. The propagation of such medicinal plants is vital for sustainable use of these medicinal plants

Prevalence, antimicrobial resistance profiles of Listeria monocytognes from various foods in Gaborone, Botswana

Listeria monocytogenes is known to cause epidemic and sporadic cases of listeriosis. The present study investigated the occurrence, antibiograms and molecular serotypes of the organism in various retail outlets in Gaborone, Botswana. Food samples were obtained randomly from selectedsupermarkets and street vendors in 5 geographical areas of Gaborone from May, 2007 to September 2007. L. monocytogenes was isolated and positively identified by using morphological and biochemical tests. From a total of 1324 food samples tested 57(4.3 %) were positive for L. monocytogenes. Out of the 57 isolates of L. monocytogenes 7 (12.3%), 3 (5.3%), 0 (0%), 27 (47.4%) and 20 (35.1%) were isolated from cheese, raw milk, meat (biltong), frozen cabbage and salad (coleslaw), respectively. From the 5 geographical areas selected for sampling in this study, Gaborone South recorded the highest number 19 (33.3%) of L. monocytogenes isolates while Gaborone West recorded the least, 7 (12.3%). The findings in this study reveal the presence of L. monocytogenes serotypes 1/2a and 1/2b in ready to eat food and highlight the need for education and training programmes in food safety in Gaborone, Botswana