Computer Simulations Imply Forelimb-Dominated Underwater Flight in Plesiosaurs

<div><p>Plesiosaurians are an extinct group of highly derived Mesozoic marine reptiles with a global distribution that spans 135 million years from the Early Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous. During their long evolutionary history they maintained a unique body plan with two pairs of large wing-like flippers, but their locomotion has been a topic of debate for almost 200 years. Key areas of controversy have concerned the most efficient biologically possible limb stroke, e.g. whether it consisted of rowing, underwater flight, or modified underwater flight, and how the four limbs moved in relation to each other: did they move in or out of phase? Previous studies have investigated plesiosaur swimming using a variety of methods, including skeletal analysis, human swimmers, and robotics. We adopt a novel approach using a digital, three-dimensional, articulated, free-swimming plesiosaur in a simulated fluid. We generated a large number of simulations under various joint degrees of freedom to investigate how the locomotory repertoire changes under different parameters. Within the biologically possible range of limb motion, the simulated plesiosaur swims primarily with its forelimbs using an unmodified underwater flight stroke, essentially the same as turtles and penguins. In contrast, the hindlimbs provide relatively weak thrust in all simulations. We conclude that plesiosaurs were forelimb-dominated swimmers that used their hind limbs mainly for maneuverability and stability.</p></div

Model voxelization.

<p>The voxelized version of the plesiosaur mesh, using 3x3x3 sub-grid voxelization. The model is re-voxelized at each simulated time-step, which further minimizes the effects of voxelization.</p

Stair negotiation made easier using novel interactive energy-recycling assistive stairs

<div><p>Here we show that novel, energy-recycling stairs reduce the amount of work required for humans to both ascend and descend stairs. Our low-power, interactive, and modular steps can be placed on existing staircases, storing energy during stair descent and returning that energy to the user during stair ascent. Energy is recycled through event-triggered latching and unlatching of passive springs without the use of powered actuators. When ascending the energy-recycling stairs, naive users generated 17.4 ± 6.9% less positive work with their leading legs compared to conventional stairs, with the knee joint positive work reduced by 37.7 ± 10.5%. Users also generated 21.9 ± 17.8% less negative work with their trailing legs during stair descent, with ankle joint negative work reduced by 26.0 ± 15.9%. Our low-power energy-recycling stairs have the potential to assist people with mobility impairments during stair negotiation on existing staircases.</p></div

Two body models.

<p>To test the effect of muscle bulk at the base of the limbs, we built two different body models. The slim model is shown in black, and the modifications to increase the muscle bulk are indicated in red. (A) dorsal view with transverse sections through the neck, body, tail, and flippers, (B) transverse section through the pectoral region, (C) lateral view, (D) transverse section through the pelvic region.</p

Modified sinusoids.

<p>(A) A modified sinusoid that is flat for a given duration, to allow the limb rotation to remain fixed during part of a stroke. (B) Another modified sinusoid that allows for time asymmetry between the downstroke and the upstroke of a limb.</p

Positive work generated during <i>T</i>_<i>FCA</i>.

<p>Positive work generated by the hip-sagittal DOF was significantly higher in the ASSIST condition (0.523 ± 0.119 J/kg) versus the MATCH condition (0.381 ± 0.084 J/kg, <i>p</i> < 0.001). The total positive work generated during <i>T</i>_<i>L</i> + <i>T</i>_<i>FCA</i> was not significantly different, with a trend towards slight reduction in ASSIST from MATCH (0.088 ± 0.101 J/kg, <i>p</i> < 0.2).</p

Simulations of fluid surrounding a voxelized circle.

<p>In the left 20x20 simulation, due to low resolution, the circle is mapped to a square shaped solid region (red blocks). In the right simulation, 3x3 sub-grid resolution is used, resulting some partially filled fluid grids (transparent red blocks). Notice the round shape of the circle is much better preserved than the left one, which does not use sub-grid resolution.</p

Overview of ERAS human user experiment.

<p>A) Schematic of the ERAS setup. The pictured compression springs are physically implemented in hardware using extension springs (see <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0179637#pone.0179637.g002" target="_blank">Fig 2</a>). Participants start each trial on the top landing, storing energy in the springs as they descend the steps. Energy stored in the springs is released back to the user as they ascend the steps. L1 and L2 are the electromagnetic latches, whereas S0, S1 and S2 are the pressure sensors. B) Positive work generated by the knee over <i>T</i>_<i>L</i> in each trial over an entire experimental session. Each experiment consisted of 10 pre-assist control trials (blue), 40 assist trials (red), 10 post-assist trials (green) and 10 speed-matched control trials (gray). Solid lines denote mean and thin lines denote one standard deviation across all participants.</p

3D model construction.

<p>(A) Illustration of the holotype of <i>Meyerasaurus victor</i> (SMNS 12478) (Scale bar = 1m). (B) The three-dimensional model was based on a series of two-dimensional cross sections. (C) Static computer rendering of the final three-dimensional model of <i>Meyerasaurus victor</i> used in our study.</p

Tip traces of the most efficient swimming strokes for each of the three ranges.

<p>(A) narrow, (B) medium, and (C) wide. The best forelimb stroke for the narrow and medium ranges is underwater flight, whereas the best stroke for the wide range is modified flight.</p