How bombardier beetles survive being eaten – and other amazing animal defence mechanisms

First paragraph: In Disney’s film version of Pinnochio, the boy-puppet rescues his creator Geppetto by lighting a fire inside Monstro the whale, who has swallowed them both. The fire causes the whale to sneeze, freeing Pinnochio and Geppetto from their gastric prison. Before you dismiss this getaway as incredible fantasy, consider that new research shows that a kind of fire in the belly can actually be an effective strategy for escaping predators in the real world. In fact, the animal kingdom is full of amazing examples of unusual defence mechanisms that help small creatures avoid a nasty fate

What species would become dominant on Earth if humans died out?

First paragraph: In a post-apocalyptic future, what might happen to life if humans left the scene? After all, humans are very likely to disappear long beforethe sun expands into a red giantand exterminates all living things from the Earth.  Access this article on The Conversation website: https://theconversation.com/what-species-would-become-dominant-on-earth-if-humans-died-out-5334

Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think

N/AOutput Type: book revie

Quelles espèces domineraient la Terre si les humains disparaissaient ?

First paragraph: Dans un futur post-Apocalypse où les humains auraient disparu, quelle forme de vie subsisterait encore ? L’homme, après tout, est vraisemblablement voué à être effacé pour de bon bien avant que le Soleil ne se transforme en une géante rouge, exterminant sur Terre tout ce qui est vivant. Access this article on The Conversation website: https://theconversation.com/quelles-especes-domineraient-la-terre-si-les-humains-disparaissaient-6271

¿Qué especies dominarían la Tierra si los humanos nos extinguiéramos?

First paragraph: En un futuro postapocalíptico, ¿qué pasaría con la vida si los humanos desapareciéramos? Al fin y al cabo, es probable que la especie humana se extinga mucho antes de que el sol se convierta en una gigantesca bola roja y acabe con todos los seres vivos sobre la faz de la Tierra. Suponiendo que no acabemos antes con los demás seres vivos (algo poco probable a pesar de nuestra tendencia a hacer desaparecer especies), la historia nos dice que habrá cambios fundamentales una vez que los humanos dejemos de ser la especie animal dominante del planeta

Offspring size variation within broods as a bet-hedging strategy in unpredictable environments

Offspring size is strikingly variable within species. Although theory can account for variation in offspring size among mothers, an adaptive explanation for variation within individual broods has proven elusive. Theoretical considerations of this problem assume that producing offspring that are too small results in reduced offspring viability, but producing offspring that are too large (for that environment) results only in a lost opportunity for increased fecundity. However, logic and recent evidence suggest that offspring above a certain size will also have lower fitness, such that mothers face fitness penalties on either side of an optimum. Although theory assuming intermediate optima has been developed for other diversification traits, the implications of this idea for selection on intra-brood variance in offspring size have not been explored theoretically. Here we model the fitness of mothers producing offspring of uniform vs. variable size in unpredictably variable environments and compare these two strategies under a variety of conditions. Our model predicts that producing variably sized offspring results in higher mean maternal fitness and less variation in fitness among generations when there is a maximum and minimum viable offspring size, and many mothers under- or over-estimate this optimum. This effect is especially strong when the viable offspring size range is narrow relative to the range of environmental variation. To determine whether this prediction is consistent with empirical evidence, we compare within- and among-mother variation in offspring size for 5 phyla of marine invertebrates with different developmental modes corresponding to contrasting levels of environmental predictability. Our comparative analysis reveals that in the developmental mode in which mothers are unlikely to anticipate the relationship between offspring size and performance, size-variation within mothers exceeds variation among mothers, but the converse is true when optimal offspring size is likely to be more predictable. Together, our results support the hypothesis that variation in offspring size within broods can reflect an adaptive strategy for dealing with unpredictably variable environments. We suggest that when there is a minimum and a maximum viable offspring size and the environment is unpredictable, selection will act on both the mean and variance of offspring size

Contrasting sexual selection on males and females in a role-reversed swarming dance-fly, Rhamphomyia longicauda Loew (Diptera: Empididae)

Sex-specific ornamentation is widely known among male animals, but even among sex-role reversed species, ornamented females are rare. Although several hypotheses for this pattern exist, too few systems featuring female ornaments have been studied in detail to adequately test them. Empidine dance flies are exceptional in that many species show female ornamentation of wings, abdomens, or legs. Here we compare sexual selection in males and females of the long-tailed dance fly, Rhamphomyia longicauda Loew (Diptera: Empididae), a sex-role reversed fly in which swarming females aggregate in competition for the nuptial gifts provided by males during mating. Females in this species possess several secondary sex characters, including eversible abdominal sacs, enlarged wings, and decorated tibiae that may all function in mate attraction during swarming. Males preferentially approach large females in the swarm, but the strength and shape of selection on females and the degree to which selection is sex-specific are unknown. We estimated linear and nonlinear sexual selection on structures expressed in both male and female flies, and found contrasting patterns of sexual selection on wing length and tibia length in males and females. In females, long wings and short tibiae were associated with mating success, whereas selection on males was significantly different: males with short wings and long tibiae were most likely to mate (although tibia length was a marginally non-significant predictor of male mating success). We found no evidence for assortative or disassortative mating. Although the largest females occupied positions within the swarm closest to the entry point for choosy males, in contrast to selection for mating success these females tended to have larger tibiae than rivals. We discuss our findings in the context of the mating biology of R. longicauda compared to other empidine dance flies, and its relevance to the evolution of sexual dimorphism in general

Sexual Selection for Male Mobility in a Giant Insect with Female‐Biased Size Dimorphism

Female-biased size dimorphism in which females are larger than males is prevalent in many animals, but the factors causing this pattern of dimorphism are still poorly understood. The agility hypothesis suggests that female-biased size dimorphism arises because smaller males are favoured in scramble competition for mates. Using radio telemetry, we assessed the agility hypothesis in the Cook Strait giant weta (Deinacrida rugosa), a species with strong female-biased size dimorphism, and tested the prediction that male traits promoting mobility (i.e. longer legs, smaller bodies) are useful in scramble competition for mates and thus promote reproductive success. Our predictions were supported: males with longer legs and smaller bodies exhibited greater mobility (daily linear displacement when not mating) and more mobile males had greater insemination success. No phenotypic traits predicted female mobility or insemination success. In species with female-biased size dimorphism, sexual selection on males is often considered to be weak compared to species in which males are large and/or possess weaponry. We found that male giant weta experience sexual selection intensities on par with males of a closely related harem-defending polygynous species, likely because of strong scramble competition with other males

Sexual conflict and cryptic female choice in the black field cricket, Teleogryllus commodus

The prevalence and evolutionary consequences of cryptic female choice (CFC) remain highly controversial, not least because the processes underlying its expression are often concealed within the female reproductive tract. However, even when female discrimination is relatively easy to observe, as in numerous insect species with externally attached spermatophores, it is often difficult to demonstrate directional CFC for certain male phenotypes over others. Using a biological assay to separate male crickets into attractive or unattractive categories, we demonstrate that females strongly discriminate against unattractive males by removing their spermatophores before insemination can be completed. This results in significantly more sperm being transferred by attractive males than unattractive males. Males respond to CFC by mate-guarding females after copulation, which increases the spermatophore retention of both attractive and unattractive males. Interestingly, unattractive males who suffered earlier interruption of sperm transfer benefited more from mate guarding and guarded females more vigilantly than attractive males. Our results suggest that post-copulatory mate guarding has evolved via sexual conflict over insemination times rather than through genetic benefits of biasing paternity toward vigorous males, as has been previously suggested

Are sex ratio distorting endosymbionts responsible for mating system variation among dance flies (Diptera: Empidinae)?

Maternally inherited bacterial endosymbionts are common in many arthropod species. Some endosymbionts cause female-biased sex ratio distortion in their hosts that can result in profound changes to a host's mating behaviour and reproductive biology. Dance flies (Diptera: Empidinae) are well known for their unusual reproductive biology, including species with female-specific ornamentation and female-biased lek-like swarming behaviour. The cause of the repeated evolution of female ornaments in these flies remains unknown, but is probably associated with female-biased sex ratios in individual species. In this study we assessed whether dance flies harbour sex ratio distorting endosymbionts that might have driven these mating system evolutionary changes. We measured the incidence and prevalence of infection by three endosymbionts that are known to cause female-biased sex ratios in other insect hosts (Wolbachia, Rickettsia and Spiroplasma) across 20 species of dance flies. We found evidence of widespread infection by all three symbionts and variation in sex-specific prevalence across the taxa sampled. However, there was no relationship between infection prevalence and adult sex ratio measures and no evidence that female ornaments are associated with high prevalences of sex-biased symbiont infections. We conclude that the current distribution of endosymbiont infections is unlikely to explain the diversity in mating systems among dance fly species. ©2017 Murray et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited