The FairShares Model: a communitarian pluralist approach to constituting social enterprises?

Objectives - This paper is an exploration of the intellectual antecedents and philosophical assumptions that underpin the FairShares Model - a set of brand principles and Articles of Association published by the FairShares Association. It contributes to knowledge of the history of the social enterprise movement and its link to contemporary developments in mutual social enterprises. Prior Work - Previous contributions to the literature on social economy have drawn on communitarian philosophy to develop insights into mutual principles. This paper sets out a theoretical framework to evaluate whether the FairShares Model represents a communitarian pluralist discourse on the constitution of social enterprises. Approach - In January 2013, the FairShares Association published guidance on the FairShares 'brand' and 'model' (drawing on work presented at ISBE) to develop the concept of a ‘socialised’ enterprise . The framework developed from prior work is used to assess which aspects of communitarian philosophy are emphasized in both antecedent model rules (identified by the FairShares Association) as well as the FairShares Model (v1.2a). Results - The FairShares Model is theorised as a predominantly communitarian pluralist discourse with some ‘corporatist’ commitments. It represents an evolving set of guidelines for the ‘socialisation’ of enterprise by devising membership rights for two primary stakeholders (labour, users), and two secondary stakeholders (founders, investors). It is designed to reverse the centralising and accumulating tendencies of the private sector without returning assets to state control. It differs from philanthropic models by offering co-operative (par value) shares to three member classes: founders, labour and users, and (ordinary) ‘investor’ shares to all classes of member. Implications - The FairShares Model contributes to knowledge on the 'socialisation' of enterprise by identifying core characteristics of member-owned enterprises that deploy strategies for multi stakeholder ownership, governance and management. Value – By operationalising a communitarian pluralist discourse in the process of constituting a social enterprise, the FairShares Model offers an alternative to private sector models based on the subordination of labour and mutual models based on the primacy of a single stakeholder group

And All Around Was Darkness

Design of punk anthology of independent writing and artwork, published by Itchy Monkey Press, 2017

Rendering the Social Solidarity Economy: exploring the case for a paradigm shift in the visibility of co operative and mutual enterprises in business education and policy-making

Theories of business are still dominated by a choice between social responsibility (altruistic communitarianism) and private business (neo-liberalism). From the start of the 1990s, this hegemony has been disrupted by research on voluntary action and social enterprise (SE). By philosophically grounding the logics of three approaches to social enterprise, this paper explores evidence of a paradigm shift. The conclusion is drawn that there is no longer a defensible justification for rendering the social solidarity economy (SSE) as a marginal choice between altruistic communitarianism and neo-liberalism. There is now a broad-based economy of unions, societies, associations (CTAs), co-operatives, mutual financial institutions, employee-owned businesses (CMEs) and socially responsible businesses (SRBs) supporting more than half the world’s population. Business education needs to be reframed as a new choice between social liberalism and pragmatic communitarianism informed by ‘new co-operativism’ that draws extensively on theories of co-operation and mutual aid in member-controlled enterprises

Solidarity cooperatives: the (hidden) origins of communitarian pluralism in the UK social enterprise movement

Purpose: This paper re-evaluates social enterprise (SE) history to pinpoint a pluralist turn in communitarian philosophy during the 1970s that has the potential to transform labour and consumer rights in enterprise development. Design/Methodology: Through a close examination of model rules created by founders of the FairShares Association (FSA), we find that the communitarian origins of SE are disturbingly obscured and hidden. Findings: In studying FSA documents and building a timeline of the development of the FairShares Model (FSM) we found links between SE developments in the UK, continental Europe, Asia, North/South America and the development of solidarity cooperatives. Research Implications: We argue that the discovery of a communitarian pluralist turn advances ‘new cooperativism’ by enfranchising both labour and users in industrial relations (IR). Using this insight, we challenge accounts of SE history and argue for more research on SE’s potential contribution to radical IR. Originality/Value: The paper highlights the potential of the FSM as a vehicle for catalysing new SE and IR practices that share wealth and power more equitably between social entrepreneurs, workforce members, service/product users and community/social investors. Keywords: common bond; communitarian pluralism; new cooperativism; multi-stakeholding; social enterprise; solidarity cooperatives

Understanding social enterprise: theory and practice. 2nd edition.

The emergence of social enterprises over the past 35 years has been an exciting and significant development in the economy at a local, national and international level. How should we understand the growing popularity of social enterprise and the wider social economy? Are alternative business models even more relevant in an uncertain business climate? Do they provide a robust response to periods of state 'austerity'? How do social enterprises contribute to global initiatives to improve the sustainability and responsibility of the business community? Through discussion of theoretical and practical considerations for the field, and a wealth of learning features, this 2nd edition of Understanding Social Enterprise: * Focuses on the distinct pathways that social enterprises follow, critiquing the competencies and practices that contribute to a successful social economy * Contains updated coverage on sector issues, including the recent development of the social investment industry * Explores how private, voluntary and public sector agencies engage the social economy, and how distinctive new forms have emerged from it * Examines the management of social enterprises in different contexts within the social economy * Contains updated coverage of international issues informed by global studies of the social economies. Revisions include a new, tripartite structure and two new chapters on 'Marketing and Measuring Social Value' and 'Social Investment and Crowd Funding'. This second edition was the product of a review of the 1st edition by 5 experienced entrepreneurship academics. It includes a companion website with teaching materials, slides, draft curricula and resource lists

Solidarity co-operatives : an embedded historical communitarian pluralist approach to social enterprise development?(Keynote to RMIT Research Colloquium)

In this paper, we explore antecedents of the FairShares Model of social enterprise to answer the question “how has the concept of a ‘solidarity co-operative’ developed in the UK?” Our research on the antecedents of the FairShares Model uncovers a history of attempts to integrate entrepreneurs, producers, service users and investors using multi-stakeholder approaches to social enterprise. We argue that this (hidden) history is rooted in a growing acceptance of communitarian pluralist principles in the social and solidarity economy, but remains marginalised in the UK due to a powerful US discourse on social entrepreneurship. The FairShares Model represents a fresh attempt to advance communitarian pluralism in social economy through advocacy of ‘multi-stakeholder co operation in member owned social enterprises’

Developing a critical appreciative process to review frameworks for social enterprise education

The object of this paper is to design a process for the development of curricula to advance social enterprise education using the lens of critical management studies (CMS). It is motivated by ongoing work to develop a new award in Cooperative Business and Responsible Management as well as ongoing work to develop the use of Understanding Social Enterprise: Theory and Practice (Ridley-Duff & Bull, 2011; 2016)

Reconceptualising social enterprise in the UK through an appreciation of legal identities

Purpose: The objective of this paper is to review current conceptualisations of social enterprise and present a new theoretical model for defining social enterprise in the United Kingdom (UK). Approach: This conceptual paper draws on the rise of social enterprise in the UK context. Social enterprise in the UK emerged around the 1980s, in both political consciousness and as an academic discipline. The paper explores organisational antecedents to develop a conceptual model that prioritises different legal forms of social enterprise in the UK regulatory framework. Findings: In critiquing policy, practitioner and academic publications, as well as the theoretical models that operationalise social enterprise, there are two observations from the literature that this paper examines: (1) Theories to date have tended to conceptualise social enterprise as a single hybrid form, neglecting a consideration of the various legal identities, ownership and governance types; (2) Theoretical models have tended to overlook the cultural, regional and political-economic histories within their conceptualisations. Originality/Value: The value and originality of this paper lies in offering a new paradigm in the conceptualisation of social enterprise in the UK. This is a new contribution to knowledge that strengthens an understanding of the field. This paper creates the space to broaden and appreciate ideologically and operationally different hybrid business types of social enterprises that include charitable, solidarity and entrepreneurial type social enterprises

Shape Sorting: Towards Defining Social Enterprise in the UK

The objective of this paper is to conceptualise social enterprise in the UK. Through an analysis of various theoretical positions this paper argues that current theory fails to fully represent the variety of organisational types that are coined ‘social enterprise’. There are numerous theoretical conceptualisations positioning social enterprise in various contexts and continents. This paper tracks the rise of social enterprise in the UK from the 1980s to the 1990s. A decade where the concept emerged and formed in both the political consciousness and as an academic discipline. The focus of the analysis here is on five key theoretical models that have influenced knowledge building, yet fail to fully appreciate the breadth of organisational types within the concept. The model presented in this paper seeks to overcome the disparity and shortcomings of concepts to date. Despite numerous attempts to define social enterprise, as well as calls to move beyond definition, the field appears to be no nearer in providing an inclusive model of social enterprise. Shape sorters do not allow people to put square blocks in round holes, triangular in hexagonal. None of the shapes are the same and none of the holes are the same, so you cannot put everything through the same hole. The analogy is similar to social enterprise as there are different types of organisations. They are not all the same. Therefore, the contribution to knowledge here is in identifying and acknowledging the different forms of social enterprise. This paper provides a conceptualisation that embraces the multifaceted nature of social enterprise, which has previously and predominantly been a search for a one-size, fits all. The implications for academics is in new ways of grappling with the concept that provides teaching material as well as scholarly research. For policy makers in re-evaluating their engagement in the sector and for practitioners in positioning themselves, whilst appreciating the various organisational types that can be conceived as social enterprises. The value of this paper lies in the conceptualisation of social enterprise in the UK. This is a new contribution to knowledge that strengthens the understanding of the field. The model provides the basis for further scholarly research in refining and building on the theorisation of social enterprise from a clearer position

The development of social enterprise in the UK. Some operational and theoretical contributions to knowledge.

Social enterprise is an 'emerging' research paradigm, yet it is not an entirely new phenomenon. There are calls from academics, policy makers and practitioners for greater understanding of the organisational models and business practices of social enterprises which this research thesis aims to contribute to. This thesis is based on a selection of my previously published research in the field of social enterprise. The eight publications selected have contributed to knowledge about both operational concepts and the theory building of social enterprise in the UK. My research in this subject area began in 2004 at a time when the concept of social enterprise was in its infancy. The fieldwork was conducted between 2004 and 2007. The publications based on the fieldwork span from 2006 to 2014. I begin this thesis with a contextual commentary on the field of research. The commentary charts theoretical conceptualisations of social enterprise. I map out how my research links to the broader research and policy landscape of social enterprise in the UK. Thereafter I summarise the contributions to knowledge made by each of my eight publications. I conclude by synthesising my overall findings. I draw attention to some operational challenges, such as financial sustainability and social performance management, as well consolidating my thinking around the theoretical conceptualisation of social enterprise in the UK. In doing so I conclude with a new theoretical framework that I have developed whilst writing this thesis. The theoretical framework aims to emphasise the breadth of organisational forms of social enterprise. The final section of the thesis includes a critical reflection and outlines directions for further research