Effects of Working Capital Management on Profitability of Tea Trading Companies – A Case of Chai Trading Company Limited

The study was intended to examine the effect of working capital management on profitability of tea trading companies with Chai Trading Company Limited (CTCL) as a case study. CTCL is the trading arm of Kenya Tea Development Agency (KTDA). Lately, CTCL hasbeen associated with cash flow mismatch between inflows and flows occasioned by working capital elements which are affecting its profitability as a tea trading company. While available empirical data provides an insight on the roles of capital management practices that CTCL has adopted such as Inventory, Debtors, Creditors and Overdraft management practices, they have not effectively illustrated the specificeffects of the practices on profitability of the company. The study therefore sought to make its contribution in sealing the existing research gap by establishingthe effects of the company’s working capital management practices on its profitability. A descriptive survey study involving 36 senior personnel in Executive Management, Finance, Freight, Trading and Chai DMCC divisions of CTCL were selected through stratified random sampling to provide data for the study. The dependent variable forthe study was profitability while the independent variables were Inventory, Debtors, Creditors and Overdraft management practices. The specific objectives of the study were; to determine the extent to which inventory management affects the profitability of tea trading companies, to investigate the extent to which debtors management affects the profitability of tea trading companies, to examine the role of creditors management on profitability of tea trading companies and to establish how overdraft management affects the profitability of tea trading companies. Data was obtained from the respondents using a questionnaire which was then analyzed using ANOVA and Pearson’s correlation coefficient. TheANOVA results showed that there exist a significant mean differencebetween Inventory, Debtors and Creditors management practices on one hand and profitability on the otherhandat 0.05 level of significance. Pearson correlation coefficient showed that debtor management is the most significant working capital management practice for CTCL followed by creditor management then inventory management and lastly overdraft management in decreasing order of effect. It is therefore recommended that the management of CTCL enhance the process of inventory cycle management, improve the company’s debt collection and ensure that the company fully utilizes its credit facilities with suppliers within the optimal range. Keywords: Tea trading companies, Working capital, Profitability

Functional Haplotypes in the ADIPOQ Gene are Associated with Underweight, Immunosuppression and Viral Suppression in Kenyan HIV-1 Infected Antiretroviral Treatment Naive and Experienced Injection Substance Users

BACKGROUND: Human immunodeficiency virus and injection substance use have an influence on genes and gene expression. These effects could be beneficial or detrimental in defining disease outcomes. Adiponectin gene is key in modulating metabolic and immunoregulatory functions. Understanding the effects of human immunodeficiency virus and injection substance use on the gene in the context of antiretroviral therapy is important for predicting disease outcomes.METHODS: This cross-sectional genetic study determined polymorphisms in the promoter region of adiponectin gene. Two variants were analyzed: rs2241766 and rs266729. Polymorphisms were associated with clinical markers of disease outcome; underweight, immunosuppression and viral suppression. The variants were genotyped via random fragment length polymorphism.RESULTS: GC haplotype was associated with higher odds of having underweight (OR, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.83-4.60; P=0.008 vs. OR, 2.30; 95% CI, 1.89-4.71; P=0.006) in antiretroviral treatment -naive and experienced injection substance users andimmunosuppression (OR, 1.90; 95% CI 1.67-3.98, P=0.041) in naive. Bonferroni correction revealed GC haplotype carriers only to have low body mass index in both naive (median, 14.8; IQR, 3.2kg/m2; P<0.002) and experienced (median, 15.2; IQR, 3.2 kg/m2; P<0.002) injection substance users. Circulating total adiponectin levels were higher in naive (median, 19.5; IQR, 7.9 μg/ml) than - experienced (median, 12.0; IQR, 4.4 μg/ml) injection substance users (P<0.0001). GC carriers presented with low serum adiponectin levels in both study groups.CONCLUSION: The study revealed haplotypes of adiponectin gene at loci rs2241766 and rs266729 that could determine disease outcomes in human immunodeficiency virus -1 antiretroviral treatment- naive and experienced injection substance users

Laboratory surveillance of cholera in Nyanza province during the outbreak from April to July 2007

Cholera continues to be an important cause of morbidity and mortality in many areas of the world, and there is currently a high frequency of new outbreaks in Africa. Following a confirmed cholera outbreak in Siaya, Kisumu, Bondo and Nyando districts, Nyanza province in western Kenya between April and July 2007, a laboratory surveillance study was conducted at the New Nyanza Provincial General Hospital’s Microbiology Laboratory. The study aimed at isolating and identifying the strain of Vibrio cholerae, Identifying the mean age of the patients and monitoring the susceptibility patterns to major antibiotics. It further aimed at determining effectiveness of empiric management of cholera. A total of 219 samples were processed out of which a total of 85 samples (39%) were found positive for Vibrio cholerae 01 sero‐type Inaba. The mean age recorded was 19 years (1 ≤ 80). The modal ages recorded were 8, 20 and 25. 55% (47) of the recorded cases were females while 45% (38) were males. Generally, V.Cholerae 01 sero‐type Inaba showed antibiotic resistance to trimethoprim‐sulfamethoxazole, nalidixic acid, sulfasoxazole, streptomycin and furazolidone. Tetracycline a commonly used antibiotic for empiric management was 100% effective on all isolates and remains the drug of choice. Samples obtained for case‐control study did not yield any cholera isolate. No prior exposure to any antibiotic was recorded among all the subjects. The study confirmed the effectiveness of empirical therapy on cholera and further identified the need of proper hygiene, water treatment, proper waste management and proper eating habits as means of controlling morbidity and mortality of cholera.Key words: Cholera, morbidity, mortality, empiric management, antibiotic resistanc

Antimicrobial activity of Warbugia ugandensis against gramnegative multi‐drug resistant bacteria

The rise in antibiotic resistance has resulted in decreasing numbers of effective antimicrobial agents available to treat infections caused by multi‐drug resistant (MDR) bacteria. This has necessitated a search for new antimicrobial agents. Herbal remedies may offer alternative treatment options especially because they elicit little or no transferable resistance if used in optimal concentrations. This study evaluated the antimicrobial properties of W. ugandensis against eight multi drug resistant (MDR) Gram‐negative bacterial isolates. The herbal extracts were obtained using methanol as an organic solvent and water as an inorganic solvent. Determination of the Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs) and the sub‐lethal concentrations of the effective extracts was done using broth inoculation method followed by colony count. The test isolates were habituated in sub‐lethal extract concentrations (SLC) for 72 h to investigate effect on their sensitivity to conventional antibiotics. Methanol extracts from the root and stem‐bark of W. ugandensis were active against the test strains and their inhibitory effect was significantly different (p<0.05) from that of other extracts. We determined that the extracts had an inhibitory rather than a lytic (cidal) mode of action. The extracts from this plant had an effective MIC of 42 μg/ml and exhibited an inhibitory mode of action and did not elicit resistance to conventional antibiotics. Methanol extracts from the root and bark of this plant may provide potential sources for further development of alternative antimicrobial agents for the treatment of MDR infections.Key words: multi‐drug resistant (MDR) bacteria, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs), sub‐lethal concentration (SLC

Evaluation of an Antigen-Antibody “Combination” Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Diagnosis of Hepatitis C Virus Infections

Background: Development of “combination” assays detecting in parallel, within a single test, Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) antigens and antibodies, not only reduces the window period in HCV-infection but also costs. Reduction of costs is important for developing countries where money and personal resources are limited.Methods: We compared the Monolisa® HCV Antigen-Antibody Ultra (Bio-Rad Laboratories Limited, Marnes La Coquette, France) with the AXSYM HCV version 3.0 (Abbot Diagnostics, Germany)-the latter assay detecting only antibodies to HCV. Seventy three HCV-PCR positive and negative samples were tested.Results: Although the two assays showed comparable results, two samples from a bone marrow transplant (BMT) patient of viral loads 7.8 x 105 and 8.9 x 106 IU/mL could not be detected by the Monolisa® HCV Antigen-Antibody Ultra assay. Failure to detect the two samples with viral loads considered above threshold of detection for antigen proteins suggested a lack of sensitivity by this assay to discover viral capsid protein in patient samples. Genotyping of these samples revealed genotype 1b, a HCV-subtype which is widespread and should thus be easily detected.Conclusion: We conclude that although this assay depicts high sensitivity and specificity in detecting antibodies to HCV, it seems not to add further benefit in our study population to detect HCV infections by enhanced sensitivity due the potential contingency to trace viral capsid antigens.Keywords: Ag-Ab Combination assay, Hepatitis C Virus, ELISA, Monolisa HCV Ag-Ab Ultr

Cultural Characterization of Fungi Isolated From Oil Contaminated Soils

Application of Fungi for effective removal of hydrocarbon contamination from soil is being considered as the better option when it comes to biodegradation. Other method like physical and chemical bioremediation leads to production of toxic compounds and these methods are not cost effective. In the present study, soil samples from four different oil contaminated soils were assessed for any recovery of fungi present. Cultural characterization was used as preliminary identification using keys.  Initial isolation from the oil contaminated soil was done using potato dextrose agar.  Colonies were observed and characterized morphologically. The isolates were grown at varied temperatures and pH. Eight fungal isolates were recovered from polluted soils namely, Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma spirale, Neosartorya pseudofischeri, Neosartorya aureola, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus terreus, Penicillium griseofulvum and Trichoderma longibrachiatum.  The optimum growth temperature range for the eight fungi was 30oC and 40oC.  There was no growth at 50oC for all isolates except some slight growth by Aspergillus flavus.  Optimum growth at pH 7 and pH 9 and poor growth at pH 5 was noted. This study will contribute to the database on locally available fungal diversity and their ecology. Keywords.  Fungi, Bioremediation, oil contamination, biodegradatio

Genetic Transformation of Sweet Potato for Improved Tolerance to Stress: A Review

The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam) is a major staple food in many parts of the world. Sweet potato leaves and tubers are consumed as food and livestock feed. Biotic and abiotic stresses affect yield leading to a reduction in production. This review analyzes factors limiting sweet potato production and the progress made towards stress tolerance using genetic transformation. Genetic transformation could enhance yield, nutritional value and tolerance to stress. Transgenic sweet potatoes tolerant to biotic and abiotic stress, improved nutritional value and higher yields have been developed. Sweet potato expressing the endotoxin cry8Db, cry7A1 and cry3Ca genes showed lower sweet potato weevil infestation than non-transformed lines. Transgenic cultivar ‘Xushu18’ expressing the oryzacystatin-1 (OC1) gene showed enhanced resistance to sweet potato stem nematodes. Sweet potato line ‘Chikei 682-11’ expressing the coat protein (CP) exhibited resistance to the sweet potato feathery mottle virus (SPFMV). Transgenics expressing the rice cysteine inhibitor gene oryzacystatin-1 (OC1) also exhibited resistance to the SPFMV. Transgenic cultivar ‘Kokei’ expressing the spermidine synthetase gene FSPD1 had higher levels of spermine in the leaves and roots, and displayed enhanced tolerance to drought and salt stress. ‘Shangshu’ variety expressing the IbMas has shown enhanced tolerance to salt stress. Transgenic ‘Lixixiang’ expressing IbMIPSI showed an up-regulation of metabolites involved in stress response to drought, salinity and nematode infestation. Transgenic ‘Yulmi’ sweet potato transformed with copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD) gene showed an enhanced tolerance to methyl viologen induced oxidative and chilling stress. Similarly, transformation of cultivar ‘Sushu-2’ with betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) gene resulted in transgenics tolerant to salt, chilling and oxidative stress. Sweet potato varieties ‘Kokei14’ and ‘Yulmi’ transformed with the bar gene were shown to be tolerant to application of the herbicide Basta. The development of stress tolerant varieties will immensely increase the area under sweet potato production and eventually promote the adoption of sweet potato as a commercial crop. Sweet potato research and breeding for stress tolerance still faces technical and socio-political hurdles. Despite these challenges, genetic transformation remains a viable method with immense potential for the improvement of sweet potato. Key words: Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam), Stress, Genetic Transformation, Transgeni

Genetic Improvement of African Maize towards Drought Tolerance: A Review

Africa supports a population of over 1 billion people with over half of them depending on maize for food and feed either directly or indirectly.  Maize in Africa is affected by many stresses, both biotic and abiotic which significantly reduce yields and eventually lead to poor production.  Due to the high demand for maize in the region, different improvement strategies have been employed in an effort to improve production.  These include conventional breeding, molecular breeding, high throughput phenotyping techniques and remote sensing-based techniques.  Conventional breeding techniques such as open pollination have been used to develop drought avoiding maize varieties like the Kito open pollinated variety (OPV) of Tanzania and Guto OPV of Ethiopia.  A combination of conventional breeding and molecular biology techniques has led to improved breeding strategies like the Marker Assisted Back Crossing (MABC) and Marker Assisted Recurrent Selection (MARS).  These techniques have been used to improve drought tolerance in existing inbred maize lines like the CML 247 and CML 176.  Through genetic engineering, different genes including C4-PEPC, NPK1, betA, ZmNF-YB2, cspB, ZmPLC1 and TsVP have been cloned in maize.  Transgenic maize crops expressing these genes have shown increased tolerance to drought stress.  Although there is substantial progress towards developing drought tolerant maize, many African farmers are yet to benefit from this technology.  This is due to lack of an enabling policy framework as well as a limited financial investment in biotechnology research. Keywords: Maize, Drought tolerance, Genetic engineering; Biotechnology; Transgenic crop

Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Five Hot Springs in Eritrea

Eritrea has a number of hot springs whose physicochemical characteristics are not documented. This study examined the thermal and chemical features of five hot springs located in the eastern escarpment of Eritrea. Field data and water samples were collected from five hot springs namely; Akwar and Maiwooi near Gahtelai, Garbanabra and Gelti near Irafayle at the Gulf of Zula and Elegedi in Alid volcanic center. The water temperatures at source varied from 49.5°C to 100°C while pH levels ranged from 6.97 to 7.54. Elegedi had significantly higher temperature (p < 0.05) than the other four hot springs. Strong correlation was observed between electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solid (TDS), salinity, sodium, potassium, calcium and chloride (R2 > 0.9) as well as between temperature and sulphate levels (R2 = 0.96). Evident clustering was noted at p < 0.05, using Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS), between the three locations of the hot springs. Akwar and Maiwooi, situated close to each other, clustered together, Garbanabra and Gelti, which were characterized by higher salinity levels, formed a separate cluster. Elegedi, characterized by high temperature (100°C), sulphate (979.7 mg/l) and NH4+ (196.33 mg/l) levels, clustered separately. Akwar and Maiwooi had high bicarbonate (345 mg/l and 393 mg/l) and fluoride (8.20 mg/l and 6.48 mg/l) levels which are above WHO limits. Electrical conductivity (23,133 mS/cm), total dissolved solid (15,552 mg/l), sodium (3,800 mg/l), potassium (198 mg/l), calcium (1,653 mg/l) and chloride (5,946 mg/l) levels in Garbanabra and Gelti hot springs exceeded WHO limits. Bromine (74.8 mg/l in Garbanabra and 45.2 mg/l in Gelti) and boron (2.21 mg/l in Garbanabra and 1.55 mg/l in Gelti) levels were also above standard limits set for potable water. Maiwooi (1.20) and Elegedi (1.10) were depositional while Akwar water (-0.71) was slightly corrosive. The corrosive nature of the water sample from Akwar, is a public health concern. The waters from the five Eritrean hot springs are thus not fit for human consumption. In addition, the use of thermal spring water for recreational purposes should be closely monitored. Keywords: key words, hot springs, physicochemical, Eritre

Human Immunodeficiency Virus -1 and Hepatitis B Virus Co-Infections among Injecting Drug Users in Malindi, Kenya

Currently no published data addressing the burden of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) co-infection among injecting drug users (IDUs) in Kenya exists. These two viruses share similar routes of transmission, with illicit drug use by injection being the major route of infection. Injecting drug use is a rapidly growing problem in coastal towns of Kenya and the problem is aggravated by sex tourism.This study aimed at determining the prevalence of HBV in HIV positive IDUs and correlating the findings with socio-demographic factors of the study population.A cross-sectional study was conducted using structured questionnaires and laboratory testing of blood samples. Surface antigens for HBV (HBsAg) and anti-HIV antibodies were screened using rapid kits followed by Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent assay tests on positive samples using Hepanostika and Vironostika test kits, for HIV and HBV, respectively. The CD4+ T-cell count was determined by flow cytometry.The prevalence of HIV/HBV co-infection was 14.3% (13/91) with a mean age of 33.2 (SD ± 8.1) years. The mean CD4+ cell count in the HIV/HBV co-infected individuals was significantly lower than HIV mono-infection. Needle sharing and duration of active injection of drugs were significantly associated with HIV/HBV co-infections.This study concludes a potentially high prevalence of HBV/ HIV co-infection in injecting drug users in Malindi, Kenya. With limited evidence on IDU prevalence and its consequences in sub-Saharan Africa, the results of this study highlight the need for a more refined policy on HIV treatment strategy among IDUs. There is a further need for triple testing for HIV, HBV and HCV among suspected IDUs and other associated risk groups like the commercial sex workers before commencement of treatment. Keywords: Injecting drug users, HIV-1, HBV, viral co-infection, Malindi, Keny