Rural people's response to soil fertility decline : the Adja case (Benin)

This study examines rural people's knowledge in changing conditions such as decreasing soil fertility and increasing population. It explores how farmers, who depend on rainfed agriculture and are confronted with an ever increasing population, react. The study presents the case of an ethnic group, the Adja, who live in South-West Benin (West Africa).Chapter I looks at agriculture in tropical rainfed areas experiencing a decline in soil fertility. Research and extension have so far generated few feasible technical solutions to the problem. This chapter explores how rural people themselves cope with the situation. Rural people's knowledge processes still seem to be poorly understood. This study investigates how the Adja farmers perceive demographic pressure and how they react to it, what knowledge influences them and what learning processes have resulted in their knowledge.The second chapter provides a theoretical perspective relevant to this study. An analysis of the relationship between researcher and rural people is given, as well as a systems perspective on rural people's knowledge, a conceptualisation of rural people's knowledge and related concepts. Rural people's knowledge will be viewed as the reconstruction of knowledge by both rural people and the researcher through a dialogical process. In addition, the reconstruction can only indicate this knowledge at a given moment in time. Three levels of studies on rural people's knowledge are distinguished: (1) knowledge 'products', (2) the social construction of rural people's knowledge, and (3) the activities which resulted in their knowledge.Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in this work. Special attention is given to methodological issues related to research on rural people's knowledge and the role of the researcher.In Chapter 4, a general introduction to the Adja plateau and its inhabitants is presented. Besides an agronomic point of view, also the Adja classification point of view is given for basic elements of the environment. The agro-ecological conditions on the plateau, the socio-cultural organisation of the Adja, as well as the history of the plateau and the interventions to change it, are described. The complexity of Adja farming is one response to the risks involved in farming. The Adja use several elements from their environment to plan agricultural activities. The history of Adja farming shows constant changes in agricultural practices, giving a dynamic picture. Agronomic interventions designed to tackle the declining soil fertility problem have been limited in their results.The Adja oil palm-based agro-forestry system broadly relieves problems imposed by increasing population pressure and is outlined and analysed in Chapter 5. The system produces significant quantities of biomass and at the same time the oil palm is firmly entrenched in Adja agricultural activities. Also a view on soil fertility as seen by the Adja themselves is described, together with an analysis of the effect of the oil palm system on soil fertility. The Adja recognise and appreciate the importance of soil life and organic matter, a viewpoint which is corroborated by the soil analysis.In Chapter 6, a presentation is given of phenomena related to rural people's knowledge on the Adja plateau, connected with variable demographic pressure and soil fertility. Oil palm densities are higher in the more populated areas. When the oil palm system comes under pressure, farmers try to prolong the cultivation of annuals, increasing the pruning of oil palms and felling them sooner. Intensification and increasing diversification of agricultural production takes place in the more populated areas. In addition, such areas have developed more dynamic and diverse aspects of social life (e.g. religion, off-farm work, migration, trade, legislation) compared to areas with more land per caput. Leadership conventions have a broader base, than in earlier days. In addition to older people, enterprising or educated young people, women and men are included in decision-making. The emergence of women as agricultural entrepreneurs, with considerable trading freedom, and who buy small pieces of land hiring more labourers than male farmers, is partly explained by male out-migration and ongoing individualisation of the Adja society.In order to understand why farmers act the way they do, one must try to proceed from their knowledge, values and ideas. Elaborating on earlier chapters dealing with Adja knowledge, Chapter 7 seeks to understand the Adja perspective by examining Adja 'sense making' activities, like learning, transformation of technology, classifying and theory making. Various examples show that Adja learning has its roots in action. In the daily practice of this learning, constant attention to possible improvement is evident. Results of experiments are shared, interpreted and discussed only in a restricted group. Encounters between different experimenting groups take place in specific social and physical contexts. Externally generated technologies are transformed and combined with social, economic, political and other factors to become an integral part of agriculture. The variability amongst Adja farmers argues in favour of the capacity to assess at an individual or experimenting-group level the potential value of a new method or technique. In the more highly populated areas, this feature of new relationships and networks result in a dynamic cultural identity.In the final chapter, it is concluded that Adja farmers have a rich body of knowledge related to agriculture. However, their agricultural knowledge is strongly related to other phenomena (e.g. religion, social struggles and diversity, access to resources, migration). In addition, it is not static, but in a continuous process of change. It is also concluded that researchers may be able to sustain ongoing Adja experiments by elaborating on a broader set of methodologies for interactive and shared learning. The adaptive research performances of farmers might be enhanced by researchers who visit farmers in their fields and try to join in their discussion. The ability of researchers to enlarge their discursive analysis by incorporating a view of practical activities as applied by farmers seems an important prerequisite for fruitful collaboration. In addition, adaptive performances of farmers might be understood and discussed by researchers if they are willing to acknowledge dimensions other than agriculture

CAPTURED India Country Evaluation

This report provides the findings of the India Country Evaluation and is produced as part of the overall CAPTURED End Evaluation. After five years of support by the CAPTURED project the End Evaluation has assessed that results are commendable. I-AIM was able to design an approach in which health folk knowledge was validated by Ayurveda and Modern health Science through the PhD research program. This has been shared with communities and partners through an outreach program. Cornerstone results and outputs were the establishment of cheap technology for drinking water, researching effective village based malaria prevention practice, exploring wider holistic health concerns with health producing and curative medicines, addressing dietary deficiency producing concerns as in the case of iron and anaemia, setting priorities for conservation and verification of changing plant uses as species become more rare, probing a pressing need for authenticating plant drugs and quality, and pharmacology efficacy in biodynamic practices. These research focus areas in the PhD program have been expanded to include partnered research, materials and course development for a revival of ethnoveterinary practices and further extended to a dairy co-operative partnership program to resolve the problems of milk quality and costs related to veterinary treatment. Report number CDI-12-01

Realist Evaluation : an overview

This report summarises the discussions and presentations of the Expert Seminar ‘Realist Evaluation’ with Gill Westhorp, which took place in Wageningen on March 29, 2011. The Expert Seminar was organised by the Wageningen UR Centre for Development Innovation in collaboration with Learning by Design and Context, international cooperation

CAPTURED Ghana Country Evaluation

This report provides the findings of the Ghana Country Evaluation and is produced as part of the overall CAPTURED End Evaluation. After five years of support by the CAPTURED project the University of Development Studies has been able to achieve commendable results. It can be confirmed that the content of CAPTURED curricula for both MPhil and PhD studies are well-drawn and suitable for the programs. The content and delivery of the CAPTURED programs are within expectation. A number of challenges have also been identified. One main challenge comes from an age-old culture where staff and students are influenced by the traditional educational system which has low regard of Indigenous Knowledge and practices with consequent preference for exogenous development. Another challenge is the observation that by mid-2012 there are not yet enough UDS professionals with the orientation and belief in ED. This will require additional support in the short term to bridge the period until PhD students have finalised their studies. The End Evaluation made 12 recommendations. The main recommendation is to decide on a clear UDS profile in terms of its Endogenous Development academic niche. Report number CDI-12-016

Managing for Sustainable Development Impact

This guide is about managing development initiatives and organizations towardssustainable development impact. It builds on the work of Guijt and Woodhill inthe 2002 IFAD publication Managing for Impact in Rural Development: A Guide for Project M&E. Since then, the managing for sustainable development impact (m4sdi) approach has evolved with insights and feedback from CDI colleagues, clients, partners, and over 800 people who have been trained in its use. In addition, the authors have drawn on the work of many others.M4SDI is an integrated, results-oriented management approach, which can beused across a range of sectors and domains in a variety of contexts, and aimsto contribute towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It seeks tointegrate ideas and practices from a range of approaches and methodologies forplanning, monitoring and evaluation, using appropriate methods or tools thatengage people in a process of learning and adaptation. It is specifically aimedat strengthening the readiness of leaders, decision-makers and developmentpractitioners to effectively manage their initiatives/organizations in complexsettings. m4sdi belongs to a special niche of management approaches, providingrelevant perspectives on what makes for effective management for those directlyinvolved in managing initiatives/organizations and wider groups of stakeholders.Many of the people trained in m4sdi have become believers and practitionersof the approach because it addresses several of the most serious concerns indevelopment, such as the difficulty in reaching primary stakeholders, designingeffective strategies and related monitoring and evaluation (M&E), focusing oncapacity development and change management, and achieving sustainabledevelopment impact. The strength of m4sdi lies in its people-centred approach and how it seeks to integrate management processes within a complex environment.The evolvement of the approach needs to be documented to share lessons learned and support capacity development. And so the principles and practices covered in this guide relate to a variety of development initiatives/organizations in the fields of agriculture, food security, local economic development, value chains, Enterprise development, and ecosystem governance. Much of the discussion takes place within the often complex context of development. As such, the guide aims to find a good balance between comprehensiveness and the principle of ‘less is more’.</p

Evaluation as a multi-stakeholder process : the Programme for Capacity and Theory Building for Universities and Research Centres in Endogenous Development (CAPTURED) in Bolivia, Ghana and India

An evaluation is a particular multi-stakeholder event during which different actors share and analyse results after several years. If the evaluation has a strong formative purpose the evaluation team is requested to facilitate a learning process involving all key actors. Especially evaluations that emphasise deeper learning have to be designed in such a way that different perspectives emerge and are appreciated in an interactive way. The present article reviews the results and methodological design of the evaluation of the Programme for Capacity and Theory Building for Universities and Research Centres in Endogenous Development (CAPTURED) in Universities and higher education centres in Bolivia, Ghana and India. The ambition of CAPTURED was to validate and integrate endogenous knowledge and values into education and research programmes. The three cases show how different stakeholders in three different context situations have interacted in higher education and research change processes. The evaluation provided an example of a mixed methods design that allowed for inclusion and appreciation of perspectives of different stakeholders. The evaluation facilitated a learning process engaging the various actors in joint analysis and formulation of shared conclusions and recommendations. Each evaluation team has to consider which set of methods is responding to the required domain and project context, and how the methods complement each other or can be adapted to the case. The design should deliver both quantitative as well as qualitative data that provide evidence about results as well as the stories and background what these results mean for different stakeholders. In this way the evaluation provided both summative evaluation (providing an assessment of results) as well as formative understanding (learning) what these results meant for different stakeholders. The case shows how an evaluation can be conducted as a facilitated process with different project stakeholders by applying mixed methods design to allow actors to learn from project results

Commercially viable agriculture and consumption of nutritious foods: a framework for identifying development pathways : A desk review

Food systems in low and middle income countries are changing rapidly in response to economic and market developments, environmental impacts, and dietary changes. Within this context, informed policy and sustainable development processes are needed to shape climate-smart and resilient food systems for food and nutrition security at farming household level. This research project aimed to a) explore the complexity of the contextual dynamics in which smallholder farming households operate; and b) contribute to a better conceptual understanding of commercial food production strategies in relation to consumption choices. A literature review was conducted, exploring both scientific and grey literature, in parallel to consultation rounds with a multidisciplinary team of agronomists, economists, nutritionists and international development specialists to explore existing insights, align available expertise, and find common ground on how to create a useful framework that would fit the specific interests and expertise of each of the actors involved. Key elements for our framework were preliminary drawn from existing frameworks. A number of - non-exclusive - pathways were identified. These include subsistence-oriented production for the household’s own consumption (source of food), whereby women – as producers as well as care takers - are seen as the crucial agents for household food security and health outcomes; production for sale in markets (source of income); and agricultural policies (national and global), affecting a range of supply and demand factors that establish the price of marketed food and non-food crops (food price policies). The important characteristics for the framework for viable commercial agriculture and consumption of nutritious foods evolve around different aggregation levels: the individual (gender and power dynamics), the household (household food production, income generation, food purchase choices, care practices, access to health care), the community (employment opportunity, collaboration, microfinance, care and social (infra)structure), and the regional/nation (price and trade policy) level

CAPTURED End Evaluation Synthesis Report

This report provides the findings of the Synthesis Study of the CAPTURED Evaluation and is produced as part of the overall CAPTURED End Evaluation. After five years of support by the CAPTURED project the three CAPTURED partners have achieved commendable results. Ten lessons learned are formulated that emerged from the CAPTURED experience and can guide future similar initiatives. The main conclusions of the End Evaluation are that the CAPTURED project provided a clear return on investments, illustrated the emergence of innovative trans-disciplinary research practices, established three PhD Research Programs that are grounded in endogenous frameworks, managed to design and conduct innovative educational programs, and institutionalised the practice area of endogenous knowledge and related EE and ER in their respective organisations and networks. The Evaluation also noted that whereas in the South the interest for endogenous development related higher education is increasing, the interest in the North is weak, which risks to loose valuable endogenous knowledge. The main recommendations are: consolidate with external academia and accredit research protocols, create a 18 months transition phase to design an up-scaling phase, expand the group of actors in a next phase, formulate a research program that deepens and validates the material produced by CAPTURED, build on the CAPTURED practice of transdisciplinarity, and acknowledge the role of constructivism in science for innovation. Specific recommendations are formulated for nine potential different actors that could engage in a next phase. Report number CDI-12-02

Rural people's response to soil fertility decline : the Adja case (Benin)

This study examines rural people's knowledge in changing conditions such as decreasing soil fertility and increasing population. It explores how farmers, who depend on rainfed agriculture and are confronted with an ever increasing population, react. The study presents the case of an ethnic group, the Adja, who live in South-West Benin (West Africa).Chapter I looks at agriculture in tropical rainfed areas experiencing a decline in soil fertility. Research and extension have so far generated few feasible technical solutions to the problem. This chapter explores how rural people themselves cope with the situation. Rural people's knowledge processes still seem to be poorly understood. This study investigates how the Adja farmers perceive demographic pressure and how they react to it, what knowledge influences them and what learning processes have resulted in their knowledge.The second chapter provides a theoretical perspective relevant to this study. An analysis of the relationship between researcher and rural people is given, as well as a systems perspective on rural people's knowledge, a conceptualisation of rural people's knowledge and related concepts. Rural people's knowledge will be viewed as the reconstruction of knowledge by both rural people and the researcher through a dialogical process. In addition, the reconstruction can only indicate this knowledge at a given moment in time. Three levels of studies on rural people's knowledge are distinguished: (1) knowledge 'products', (2) the social construction of rural people's knowledge, and (3) the activities which resulted in their knowledge.Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in this work. Special attention is given to methodological issues related to research on rural people's knowledge and the role of the researcher.In Chapter 4, a general introduction to the Adja plateau and its inhabitants is presented. Besides an agronomic point of view, also the Adja classification point of view is given for basic elements of the environment. The agro-ecological conditions on the plateau, the socio-cultural organisation of the Adja, as well as the history of the plateau and the interventions to change it, are described. The complexity of Adja farming is one response to the risks involved in farming. The Adja use several elements from their environment to plan agricultural activities. The history of Adja farming shows constant changes in agricultural practices, giving a dynamic picture. Agronomic interventions designed to tackle the declining soil fertility problem have been limited in their results.The Adja oil palm-based agro-forestry system broadly relieves problems imposed by increasing population pressure and is outlined and analysed in Chapter 5. The system produces significant quantities of biomass and at the same time the oil palm is firmly entrenched in Adja agricultural activities. Also a view on soil fertility as seen by the Adja themselves is described, together with an analysis of the effect of the oil palm system on soil fertility. The Adja recognise and appreciate the importance of soil life and organic matter, a viewpoint which is corroborated by the soil analysis.In Chapter 6, a presentation is given of phenomena related to rural people's knowledge on the Adja plateau, connected with variable demographic pressure and soil fertility. Oil palm densities are higher in the more populated areas. When the oil palm system comes under pressure, farmers try to prolong the cultivation of annuals, increasing the pruning of oil palms and felling them sooner. Intensification and increasing diversification of agricultural production takes place in the more populated areas. In addition, such areas have developed more dynamic and diverse aspects of social life (e.g. religion, off-farm work, migration, trade, legislation) compared to areas with more land per caput. Leadership conventions have a broader base, than in earlier days. In addition to older people, enterprising or educated young people, women and men are included in decision-making. The emergence of women as agricultural entrepreneurs, with considerable trading freedom, and who buy small pieces of land hiring more labourers than male farmers, is partly explained by male out-migration and ongoing individualisation of the Adja society.In order to understand why farmers act the way they do, one must try to proceed from their knowledge, values and ideas. Elaborating on earlier chapters dealing with Adja knowledge, Chapter 7 seeks to understand the Adja perspective by examining Adja 'sense making' activities, like learning, transformation of technology, classifying and theory making. Various examples show that Adja learning has its roots in action. In the daily practice of this learning, constant attention to possible improvement is evident. Results of experiments are shared, interpreted and discussed only in a restricted group. Encounters between different experimenting groups take place in specific social and physical contexts. Externally generated technologies are transformed and combined with social, economic, political and other factors to become an integral part of agriculture. The variability amongst Adja farmers argues in favour of the capacity to assess at an individual or experimenting-group level the potential value of a new method or technique. In the more highly populated areas, this feature of new relationships and networks result in a dynamic cultural identity.In the final chapter, it is concluded that Adja farmers have a rich body of knowledge related to agriculture. However, their agricultural knowledge is strongly related to other phenomena (e.g. religion, social struggles and diversity, access to resources, migration). In addition, it is not static, but in a continuous process of change. It is also concluded that researchers may be able to sustain ongoing Adja experiments by elaborating on a broader set of methodologies for interactive and shared learning. The adaptive research performances of farmers might be enhanced by researchers who visit farmers in their fields and try to join in their discussion. The ability of researchers to enlarge their discursive analysis by incorporating a view of practical activities as applied by farmers seems an important prerequisite for fruitful collaboration. In addition, adaptive performances of farmers might be understood and discussed by researchers if they are willing to acknowledge dimensions other than agriculture

Outcome Harvesting of the Programme “Central Asia on the Move” : Evaluation report

This evaluation reviews the Programme “Central Asia on the Move”, a Regional Programme in CentralAsia for 2012-2015 of DanChurchAid (DCA), the Interchurch Organisation for Development andCooperation (ICCO) and Brot für die Welt (BftW). The main purpose of this evaluation is to assess towhat extent the programme has contributed to outcomes in terms of changed behaviours,relationships, actions or activities among the individuals, groups, networks or organisationsparticipating in the programme and with whom the programme is interacting with