Reintroducing San Joaquin kit fox (Vulpes macrotis mutica) to vacant or restored lands: identifying optimal source populations and candidate foxes

Endangered San Joaquin kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis mutica) currently persist as a meta- population in central California consisting of 3 core and several satellite populations. Many of these populations are small and the meta-population is highly fragmented, which increases extinction risk. Translocation is a potential strategy for increasing the number of populations. Various factors would need to be considered when selecting source populations and candidate foxes for translocation. One such factor is behavioral attributes of individual foxes, as reflected by level of boldness, particularly in response to novel resources and potential threats. We compared behavioral attributes between and within populations of kit foxes in urban and non-urban habitats, and also examined the relationship of these attributes to survival and fitness. The overall goal of this project was to identify optimal source populations and individual foxes for relocation efforts, and in particular to determine whether urban foxes could be used in such efforts

The impact of exhibit type on behaviour of caged and free-ranging tamarins

The lack of appropriate stimuli associated with captive environments has been documented to cause several behavioural and physiological issues in captive species, including loss of natural behaviours, psychopathologies and decreased reproductive success. Providing free-ranging, naturalistic exhibits that replicate elements of a species’ natural environment is advocated as a means of promoting and preserving the natural behavioural repertoire in captive species. Exhibition of natural behaviour is considered beneficial to conservation in terms of animal health and welfare, reintroduction success, education and research. This study assessed differences in behaviour of emperor and pied tamarins housed in free-ranging and caged exhibits at Durrell Wildlife Park to determine the impact of exhibit type. Free-ranging tamarins were expected to exhibit a repertoire of behaviours more similar to that of wild tamarins based on their access to a more naturalistic and complex environment. Data was collected on a variety of behaviours, including activity, substrate use and communication, using instantaneous and one-zero sampling at 30 s intervals. Findings indicated that both free-ranging and caged tamarins exhibited natural behaviours; however, there were significant differences in mean rates of behaviours between conditions. Free-ranging tamarins exhibited significantly higher rates of locomotion (emperors: P < 0.001; pieds: P < 0.001), long calls (pieds: P = 0.019) and alarm calls (emperors: P = 0.012), and displayed competent use of the environment in terms of natural substrate use (emperors: P < 0.001; pieds: P = 0.007) and interspecific interactions. Caged tamarins exhibited significantly higher rates of affiliative (emperors: P = 0.001; pieds: P = 0.026) and agonistic (emperors: P = 0.003) intraspecific interactions and time spent in contact (emperors: P = 0.048; pieds: P = 0.043), which was largely attributed to spatial restrictions imposed by caged exhibits. This study, consistent with existing literature, indicated that the free-ranging exhibit was conducive to the expression of a behavioural repertoire more similar to that of wild tamarins. This was probably a result of the increased behavioural opportunities available in the free-ranging exhibit, highlighting their importance in promoting wild-type behaviours. However, some mean rates of behaviour were still noticeably less than those documented in wild counterparts. Methods to further promote natural behaviours in both exhibits are recommended to facilitate ex situ and in situ conservation efforts

Understanding temporal social dynamics in zoo animal management: an elephant case study

Zoo animal management procedures which lead to changes to social groups can cause disruption in social hierarchies and the temporary breakdown of social relationships. Animals have different roles in social networks. Understanding individual positions in social networks is important for effective management and ensuring positive welfare for all animals. Using elephants as a case study, the aim of this research was to investigate temporal social dynamics in zoo animals. Behavioural data were collected between January 2016 and February 2017 from 10 African and 22 Asian elephants housed at seven zoos and safari parks in the UK and Ireland. Social interactions were defined as positive physical, positive non-physical, negative physical or negative non-physical. Social network analysis explored social relationships including the fluidity of networks over time and dyadic reciprocity. Social interaction networks were found to be fluid but did not follow a seasonal pattern. Positive interaction networks tended to include the entire social group whereas negative interactions were restricted to specific individuals. Unbalanced ties were observed within dyads, suggesting potential inequalities in relationships. This could impact on individual experiences and welfare. This research highlights subtle temporal dynamics in zoo elephants with the potential for species-level differences. Similar temporal dynamics may also be present in other socially housed zoo species. This research thus provides evidence for the importance of understanding the social networks of zoo animals over longer periods of time. Understanding social networks enables pro-active and evidence-based management approaches. Further research should seek to identify the minimum sampling efforts for social networks in a range of species, to enable the implementation of regular monitoring of social networks and thus improve the welfare of social species under human care

A systematic review into the suitability of urban refugia for the Eurasian red squirrel Sciurus vulgaris

1. Urban growth and intensification are projected to increase as the global human population increases. Historically, urban areas have been disregarded as suitable wildlife habitat, but it is now known that these areas can be biodiverse and that wildlife species can adapt to the environmental conditions. One such urban-dwelling species is the Eurasian red squirrel Sciurus vulgaris, which has suffered population declines in several countries throughout its range in recent decades. 2. The current published literature was systematically reviewed to determine whether or not urban habitats are suitable refugia for red squirrels, through identifying and discussing key topics regarding the urban ecology of red squirrels. 3. Urban environments can support higher population densities of red squirrels than rural areas, probably due to the widespread and reliable provision of anthropogenic supplemental food alongside natural food sources. The availability and quality of urban greenspaces are important determinants of the suitability of urban habitats for red squirrels, as they provide natural food sources and nesting sites. Despite the barriers present in urban landscapes (e.g. roads), red squirrels can still disperse and maintain gene flow at the population level. 4. Road traffic accidents appear to be a significant cause of mortality in some urban red squirrel populations, and seasonal peaks of mortality occur during the autumn months. Diseases (e.g. squirrelpox virus) can also be a significant cause of mortality, although effects differ between populations and depend on whether grey squirrels Sciurus carolinensis are present. Many of the predation events that affect red squirrels appear to be due to free-ranging domestic and feral cats Felis catus, although there is currently little evidence to suggest that predation is a limiting factor for urban red squirrel populations. 5. We conclude that urban areas can be suitable refugia for red squirrels, provided that high-quality greenspaces are maintained. Mitigation measures may also be necessary to reduce population mortality and to prevent disease outbreaks

Social interactions in zoo-housed elephants: factors affecting social relationships

Elephants have complex social systems that are predominantly driven by ecological factors in situ. Within zoos, elephants are held in relatively static social groups and the factors observed driving social relationships in the wild are largely absent. Little research has investigated the effect of social group factors in zoos on elephant social interactions. The aim of this research was to establish whether there is a relationship between social group factors and social behaviour, in order to identify factors that make elephant herds more or less likely to be compatible. Results will facilitate recommendations for optimum social groupings for zoo elephants. Behavioural data quantifying social interactions were collected between January 2016 and February 2017 at seven UK and Irish zoos and safari parks from 10 African and 22 Asian elephants. Social interactions were split into four categories: positive physical, positive non-physical, negative physical and negative non-physical. Social interactions were related to age (positive physical higher and negative non-physical lower in calves than adults), personality (elephants with higher sociability scores engaged in more positive interactions and less negative interactions), presence of calves in the herd (herds with calves had more positive non-physical), relatedness to other elephants in the herd (positive non-physical were higher when relatives were in the group and negative non-physical were higher between unrelated elephants) and species (Asian elephants engaged in more positive non-physical than African elephants). A greater understanding of factors that may contribute to the success of zoo-elephant social groups is important for individual and herd welfare as it will enable evidence-based decisions which have minimal impact on social structures to be executed. This knowledge will enable proactive management approaches to be undertaken and will thus be paramount in ensuring optimal welfare for elephant herds moving forwards

Exploring the relationship between personality and social interactions in zoo-housed elephants: incorporation of keeper expertise

Individual animal personalities affect experiences of zoo environments, and thus potentially welfare. Incorporating keeper knowledge of animal personality in a reliable way has great value in optimising welfare in zoo-housed animals. Assessment of animal personality has been used to predict group compatibility and social relationships in a number of species including rhinoceros, gorilla and chimpanzees, and there is potential to do the same with zoo elephants. This study identified elephant personalities using keeper ratings, and investigated the relationship between personality and social interactions in zoo elephants. Behavioural data were collected over a period of 12 months at seven study facilities (January 2016 – February 2017). Subjects were 10 African (1 male: 9 females) and 19 Asian (3 male: 16 female) elephants housed at zoos and safari parks in the UK and Ireland. Each subject was rated using an elephant personality assessment questionnaire, comprising 21 personality adjectives with a visual analogue scale. Personality assessments were completed by 27 keepers. Reliability across keepers was established for nine adjectives and a principal components analysis revealed three personality components: ‘attentiveness’, ‘sociable’ and ‘engaged with the environment’. Correlations were observed between keeper scores of sociability and social interactions (p<0.05). Elephants considered more sociable by keepers interacted positively with a greater proportion of elephants in the herd than less sociable elephants (p<0.05). Current Secretary of States Standards of Modern Zoo Practice (SSSMZP) elephant management guidelines include the need for long-term management plans, including elephant behavioural profiles and herd compatibility assessments. The results show that sociability as identified by keepers relates to social interactions, illustrating the importance of inclusion of personality assessment in management plans. Future work should build on these findings; applying keeper ratings of elephant personality to a larger sample size, and exploring potential as a predictive tool in compatibility assessments. Such a measure would help to increase the chance of successful social group formation contributing to positive zoo elephant welfare

Livestock guarding dogs enable human-carnivore coexistence: first evidence of equivalent carnivore occupancy on guarded and unguarded farms

Livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) are advocated to reduce livestock depredation on agricultural lands. However, LGDs have been proposed as excluding carnivores from guarded farms; this study is the first to test this hypothesis in an African ecosystem. We investigated carnivore occupancy (black-backed jackal, leopard and brown hyaena) from 1029 camera-trap days (126 camera locations) in relation to the presence of LGDs and a range of habitat and land-use covariates across eight South African farms, five of which utilised an LGD. Models containing LGDs had little support in explaining leopard or black backed jackal occupancy, although LGD presence had a positive relationship with brown hyaena occupancy (β = 1.14, 95% CI = 0.05, 2.23). Leopard detection was positively related to the presence of black-backed jackals (β = 1.47, 95% CI = 0.18, 2.74) and sheep (β = 1.13, 95% CI = 0.14, 2.12), whilst black-backed jackal detection was negatively related to lures (β = -1.33, 95% CI = -2.00, -0.65) and positively related to the presence of brown hyaena (β = 0.90, 95% CI = 0.43, 1.40). Previous research in this LGD population has demonstrated the cessation of livestock depredation in 91% of cases, making dog ineffectiveness unlikely to explain their lack of influence on carnivore occupancy. Our results provide the first empirical evidence based on ecological data of the capacity for LGDs to promote human-carnivore coexistence in an African agricultural context, further validating the use of specialist guarding dogs as a conservation tool of benefit to both human and wildlife populations

Assessing personality in San Joaquin kit fox in situ: efficacy of field-based experimental methods and implications for conservation management

Utilisation of animal personality has potential benefit for conservation management. Due to logistics of robust behavioural evaluation in situ, the majority of studies on wild animals involve taking animals into captivity for testing, potentially compromising results. Three in situ tests for evaluation of boldness in San Joaquin kit fox (Vulpes macrotis mutica) were developed (ENOT: extended novel object test; RNOT: rapid novel object test; TH: trap/handling test). Each test successfully identified variation in boldness within its target age class(es). The TH test was suitable for use across all age classes. Tests were assessed for in situ suitability and for quantity/quality of data yielded. ENOT was rated as requiring high levels of time, cost and labour with greater likelihood of failure. However, it was rated highly for data quantity/quality. The TH test was rated as requiring little time, labour and cost, but yielding lower quality data. RNOT was rated in the middle. Each test had merit and could be adapted to suit project or species constraints. We recommend field-based evaluation of personality, reducing removal of animals from the wild and facilitating routine incorporation of personality assessment into conservation projects

Reciprocity as a foundation of financial economics

This paper argues that the subsistence of the fundamental theorem of contemporary financial mathematics is the ethical concept ‘reciprocity’. The argument is based on identifying an equivalence between the contemporary, and ostensibly ‘value neutral’, Fundamental Theory of Asset Pricing with theories of mathematical probability that emerged in the seventeenth century in the context of the ethical assessment of commercial contracts in a framework of Aristotelian ethics. This observation, the main claim of the paper, is justified on the basis of results from the Ultimatum Game and is analysed within a framework of Pragmatic philosophy. The analysis leads to the explanatory hypothesis that markets are centres of communicative action with reciprocity as a rule of discourse. The purpose of the paper is to reorientate financial economics to emphasise the objectives of cooperation and social cohesion and to this end, we offer specific policy advice