Repeated Closed Head Injury in Mice Results in Sustained Motor and Memory Deficits and Chronic Cellular Changes

Millions of mild traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) occur every year in the United States, with many people subject to multiple head injuries that can lead to chronic behavioral dysfunction. We previously reported that mild TBI induced using closed head injuries (CHI) repeated at 24h intervals produced more acute neuron death and glial reactivity than a single CHI, and increasing the length of time between injuries to 48h reduced the cumulative acute effects of repeated CHI. To determine whether repeated CHI is associated with behavioral dysfunction or persistent cellular damage, mice receiving either five CHI at 24h intervals, five CHI at 48h intervals, or five sham injuries at 24h intervals were evaluated across a 10 week period after injury. Animals with repeated CHI exhibited motor coordination and memory deficits, but not gait abnormalities when compared to sham animals. At 10wks post-injury, no notable neuron loss or glial reactivity was observed in the cortex, hippocampus, or corpus callosum. Argyrophilic axons were found in the pyramidal tract of some injured animals, but neither silver stain accumulation nor inflammatory responses in the injury groups were statistically different from the sham group in this region. However, argyrophilic axons, microgliosis and astrogliosis were significantly increased within the optic tract of injured animals. Repeated mild CHI also resulted in microgliosis and a loss of neurofilament protein 200 in the optic nerve. Lengthening the inter-injury interval from 24h to 48h did not effectively reduce these behavioral or cellular responses. These results suggest that repeated mild CHI results in persistent behavioral dysfunction and chronic pathological changes within the visual system, neither of which was significantly attenuated by lengthening the inter-injury interval from 24h to 48h

Astrocyte-Specific Overexpression of Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 Protects Hippocampal Neurons and Reduces Behavioral Deficits following Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) survivors often suffer from long-lasting cognitive impairment that stems from hippocampal injury. Systemic administration of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), a polypeptide growth factor known to play vital roles in neuronal survival, has been shown to attenuate posttraumatic cognitive and motor dysfunction. However, its neuroprotective effects in TBI have not been examined. To this end, moderate or severe contusion brain injury was induced in mice with conditional (postnatal) overexpression of IGF-1 using the controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury model. CCI brain injury produces robust reactive astrocytosis in regions of neuronal damage such as the hippocampus. We exploited this regional astrocytosis by linking expression of hIGF-1 to the astrocyte-specific glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) promoter, effectively targeting IGF-1 delivery to vulnerable neurons. Following brain injury, IGF-1Tg mice exhibited a progressive increase in hippocampal IGF-1 levels which was coupled with enhanced hippocampal reactive astrocytosis and significantly greater GFAP levels relative to WT mice. IGF-1 overexpression stimulated Akt phosphorylation and reduced acute (1 and 3d) hippocampal neurodegeneration, culminating in greater neuron survival at 10d after CCI injury. Hippocampal neuroprotection achieved by IGF-1 overexpression was accompanied by improved motor and cognitive function in brain-injured mice. These data provide strong support for the therapeutic efficacy of increased brain levels of IGF-1 in the setting of TBI

Neuroinflammation and Neurologic Deficits in Diabetes Linked to Brain Accumulation of Amylin

BACKGROUND: We recently found that brain tissue from patients with type-2 diabetes (T2D) and cognitive impairment contains deposits of amylin, an amyloidogenic hormone synthesized and co-secreted with insulin by pancreatic β-cells. Amylin deposition is promoted by chronic hypersecretion of amylin (hyperamylinemia), which is common in humans with obesity or pre-diabetic insulin resistance. Human amylin oligomerizes quickly when oversecreted, which is toxic, induces inflammation in pancreatic islets and contributes to the development of T2D. Here, we tested the hypothesis that accumulation of oligomerized amylin affects brain function. METHODS: In contrast to amylin from humans, rodent amylin is neither amyloidogenic nor cytotoxic. We exploited this fact by comparing rats overexpressing human amylin in the pancreas (HIP rats) with their littermate rats which express only wild-type (WT) non-amyloidogenic rodent amylin. Cage activity, rotarod and novel object recognition tests were performed on animals nine months of age or older. Amylin deposition in the brain was documented by immunohistochemistry, and western blot. We also measured neuroinflammation by immunohistochemistry, quantitative real-time PCR and cytokine protein levels. RESULTS: Compared to WT rats, HIP rats show i) reduced exploratory drive, ii) impaired recognition memory and iii) no ability to improve the performance on the rotarod. The development of neurological deficits is associated with amylin accumulation in the brain. The level of oligomerized amylin in supernatant fractions and pellets from brain homogenates is almost double in HIP rats compared with WT littermates (P \u3c 0.05). Large amylin deposits (\u3e50 μm diameter) were also occasionally seen in HIP rat brains. Accumulation of oligomerized amylin alters the brain structure at the molecular level. Immunohistochemistry analysis with an ED1 antibody indicates possible activated microglia/macrophages which are clustering in areas positive for amylin infiltration. Multiple inflammatory markers are expressed in HIP rat brains as opposed to WT rats, confirming that amylin deposition in the brain induces a neuroinflammatory response. CONCLUSIONS: Hyperamylinemia promotes accumulation of oligomerized amylin in the brain leading to neurological deficits through an oligomerized amylin-mediated inflammatory response. Additional studies are needed to determine whether brain amylin accumulation may predispose to diabetic brain injury and cognitive decline

Doxorubicin-Induced Elevated Oxidative Stress and Neurochemical Alterations in Brain and Cognitive Decline: Protection by MESNA and Insights into Mechanisms of Chemotherapy-Induced Cognitive Impairment ( Chemobrain )

Chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment (CICI) is now widely recognized as a real and too common complication of cancer chemotherapy experienced by an ever-growing number of cancer survivors. Previously, we reported that doxorubicin (Dox), a prototypical reactive oxygen species (ROS)-producing anti-cancer drug, results in oxidation of plasma proteins, including apolipoprotein A-I (ApoA-I) leading to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-mediated oxidative stress in plasma and brain. We also reported that co-administration of the antioxidant drug, 2-mercaptoethane sulfonate sodium (MESNA), prevents Dox-induced protein oxidation and subsequent TNF-α elevation in plasma. In this study, we measured oxidative stress in both brain and plasma of Dox-treated mice both with and without MESNA. MESNA ameliorated Dox-induced oxidative protein damage in plasma, confirming our prior studies, and in a new finding led to decreased oxidative stress in brain. This study also provides further functional and biochemical evidence of the mechanisms of CICI. Using novel object recognition (NOR), we demonstrated the Dox administration resulted in memory deficits, an effect that was rescued by MESNA. Using hydrogen magnetic resonance imaging spectroscopy (H1-MRS) techniques, we demonstrated that Dox administration led to a dramatic decrease in choline-containing compounds assessed by (Cho)/creatine ratios in the hippocampus in mice. To better elucidate a potential mechanism for this MRS observation, we tested the activities of the phospholipase enzymes known to act on phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), a key component of phospholipid membranes and a source of choline for the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (ACh). The activities of both phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase C (PC-PLC) and phospholipase D were severely diminished following Dox administration. The activity of PC-PLC was preserved when MESNA was co-administered with Dox; however, PLD activity was not protected. This study is the first to demonstrate the protective effects of MESNA on Dox-related protein oxidation, cognitive decline, phosphocholine (PCho) levels, and PC-PLC activity in brain and suggests novel potential therapeutic targets and strategies to mitigate CICI

Antibody List.

<p>Antibody List.</p

Repeated closed head injury (CHI) induced chronic axonal degeneration in the optic tract and optic nerve.

<p>Argyrophilic axons in the optic tract (A-F) were labeled using silver stain. Scale bars: 500μm A-C: 250μm D-F. The mean density of silver staining in the optic nerve was normalized to background using adjacent stained areas (G). * indicates p<0.05 compared to all other groups. Optic nerves (H-J) were labeled for neurofilament heavy chain (NF200) and the percent area of staining was quantified (K). Scale bars: 250μm H-J. $ indicates p<0.05 compared to sham.</p

Apnea and Righting Reflex.

<p>Apnea and Righting Reflex.</p

Inflammation did not persist in the entorhinal cortex or hippocampus 10wks after repeated closed head injury (CHI).

<p>Immunohistochemical labeling of ionized calcium-binding adaptor protein-1 (Iba-1; A-C) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP; D-I) in the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus after repeated sham (rSHAM), repeated CHI at 24h intervals (rCHI-24h), and repeated CHI at 48h intervals (rCHI-48h). Scale bars: 500μm A-F; 250μm G-I. The percent area of Iba-1 labeling was quantified for analysis in the entorhinal cortex (J). The mean integrated optical density (IOD) of GFAP/astrocyte was analyzed for the entorhinal cortex (K) and the hippocampus (L).</p

Repeated closed head injury (CHI) induced motor and memory deficits over 10wks post-injury.

<p>Behavioral testing was conducted following repeated sham (rSHAM), repeated CHI at a 24h interval (rCHI-24h), and repeated CHI at a 48h interval (rCHI-48h). (A) Memory scores in the novel object recognition task were calculated by dividing the time spent exploring the novel object by the total exploration time (recognition index). (B) The beam walking task was used to identify deficits in motor coordination. A score of 5 indicated perfect performance on the task, with lower scores indicating poorer motor skills. Component analysis for the beam walking task of (C) the 0.5cm plexiglass beam and (D) the 0.5cm wooden dowel rod. $ indicates significant difference from rSHAM (p<0.05 post-hoc testing for main effect of injury). # indicates that performance across all groups was better at 10wks compared to 24h (p<0.05).</p

Repeated closed head injury (CHI) causes chronic microgliosis in the optic tract and optic nerve.

<p>Immunohistochemical labeling of cluster of differentiation 68 (CD68; A-C, G-I) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP; D-F) after repeated sham (rSHAM), repeated CHI at 24h intervals (rCHI-24h), and repeated CHI at 48h intervals (rCHI-48h). Scale bars: 250μm. The percent area of CD68 labeling was quantified for analysis in the optic tract (J), and optic nerves (L). The percent area of GFAP labeling was quantified for analysis in the optic tract (K). $ indicates p<0.05 compared to sham.</p