Chemistry of butter and butter making I. A comparison of four methods for the analysis of butter with an explanation of a discrepancy found to exist in the fat determinations

1. A modification of the A. O. A. C. method for complete butter analysis is described. The method is considered applicable for use in control laboratories, in which eight or more samples are analyzed at a time. 2. This method, together with the Kohman and Mojonnier analyses for butter, was compared with the A. O. A. C. method as a standard. The modified official and the Kohman methods check closely with the A. O. A. C. method for all constituents of butter. With the 50 samples analyzed in duplicate the fat content was 0.22 percent lower by the Mojonnier method (abnormal values not included-see table I ) than by the A. O. A. C. method. About 10 percent of the Mojonnier analyses varied widely from the duplicates and from the A. O. A. C. method. 3. The variation between duplicates is attributed (a) to peculiarities in the emulsification of the fat in the extraction flasks, which caused incomplete extraction, and (b) to a blowing out of ether-fat solution around the stoppers when these were removed or to both. 4. Data are presented which show that the value by which normal Mojonnier fat determinations are lower than the A. O. A. C. method is equivalent to the fatty acids, which are not extracted in the Mojonnier procedure but which appear as fat with the A. O. A. C. analysis. It is further shown that this difference was larger, as the rancidity of the butter increased. 5. The modified official method is a rapid method and is considered sufficiently accurate for the analysis of good quality butter in control laboratory work. Likewise the A. O. A. C. method is considered to be accurate as an analytical standard for the analysis of good quality butter. The Kohman method as outlined is a rapid method sufficiently accurate for plant use. All three methods give values for fat which are too high by an appreciable amount for the analysis of rancid butter. 6. The Mojonnier and the la-gram extraction methods give a closer approximation of the true fat value of rancid butter than do the dry extraction methods (A. O. A. C., modified official and Kohman)

Rapid acid tests for cream

The Farrington rapid acid test has been employed for many years by the fluid milk industry for grading samples on the borderline of acidity set for their purchase. In performing the test, neutralizing solutions (containing phenolphthalein) used are of such strength that 1 dipper of solution added to 1 dipper (of the same size) of milk gives a pink mixture if the milk is 0.1 percent acid or less; 2 dippers of neutralizing solution grade at the 0.2 percent point and so on. By adjusting the neutralizing strength the grades corresponding to 1 and 2 dippers of neutralizing solution to 1 of milk can be made 0.2 and 0.4 percent, respectively, instead of 0.1 and 0.2 percent. This is the strength of the solution used for cream grading

Quality Aspects of Butter Marketing in South Dakota

The future well-being of the dairy industry in South Dakota may depend to a large extent on progress made in improving butter quality. About two-thirds of the dairy output in the state is exported to other states, mostly as bulk butter. Little of this butter qualifies as Grade A, and a sizeable proportion of it is below Grade B. Improvement in quality is necessary if South Dakota butter is to command top prices on the wholesale markets. It is particularly important in the light of the increasing competition which butter faces from margarine as a spread. Data for the study were gathered from a sample of 20 creameries in 1950 and from all of the South Dakota creameries in 1951. These data shed some light on the relationship between butter quality and prices received by creameries. The data also provide information on the relationship between the different measures of butter quality and various cream procurement, processing, and butter marketing methods prevailing in South Dakota at the time of the surveys

Chemistry of butter and butter making IV. The relationships among the cream acidity, the churning loss and the churning time

1. The influence of acidity, developed in cream that had been pasteurized while sweet and subsequently ripened, was studied over a pH range (in the buttermilk) from 4.5 to 7.0. 2. Three series of creams, viz., 20, 30 and 37.5 percent fat, were investigated. 3. The losses (calculated as percentage of the total fat) for all three series varied little in the pH range 7.0 to 5.5. In this region the least variation was encountered with 30 percent cream; such tendency in loss changes as was exhibited by 30 percent cream was toward a decreasing loss with decreasing pH, while the 37.5 percent cream losses tended to pass through a. minimum at pH 6.3 to 6.4. From pH 5.5 to pH 4.8 or 4.9 the losses rose to maxima (at 4.8 to 4.9) with 20 and 37.5 percent cream; a slight rise with no definite maximum at pH 4.8 to 4.9 occurred with 30 percent cream. With all three creams a marked change of function in the curves (loss vs. pH of buttermilk) occurred at pH 4.8 to 4.9; the loss dropped sharply and in practically linear fashion from that point to pH 4.5. 4. The above facts (especially the maximum at pH 4.8 to 4.9) were interpreted as indicating that casein plays an important role in the protection of the fat globules in cream, if the churning loss is taken as a measure of protective action. 5. The churning loss data correlated very well with electro-kinetic potentials of the fat globules, determined by Sommer and North and re-presented here. 6. Churning times show closer correlation with pH of buttermilk the lower the fat test of the cream. Other factors such as change in protein to fat ratio, increased viscosity, greater ease of whipping, lower specific gravity, etc., may be involved in affecting the churning times of the richer creams. 7. Churning time data in this and the third bulletin of this series indicate that, if the fat and serum in cream are in proper physical state and chemical equilibrium, no hard and fast rule can be drawn that long or short churning times must be associated with high losses. 8. Data show that the fat test of the buttermilk in low fat (18 to 20 percent), highly ripened creams (pH 4.5 to 4.6) is considerably lower than those for high fat (30 to 37.5 percent), sweet cream (pH 6.5). Calculated as the percentage of the total fat churned, however, the low fat, highly ripened cream losses are approximately equivalent to those for 30 percent sweet cream and are slightly higher than those for 37.5 percent sweet cream. This shows that the American, Australian and New Zealand churning losses compare very favorably with those obtained in Denmark, Germany and Holland. 9. Based on the data presented and others from the literature it was hypothecated that the protective action at the fat globule interface was caused by two types of protective materials- one labile and one non-labile. The latter is closely associated with the fat, presumably on the fat side of the interface, and consists of a protein-phospholipin complex. The former is oriented from the water side of the interface and is composed of all the surface tension lowering constituents of the serum. Of the serum constituents casein probably plays the most important protective role as indicated by certain dairy phenomena. 10. If the validity of the hypothesis presented is assumed, the following explanation of the churning process seems logical: Utilization of the labile protective materials, to stabilize foam interfaces, decreases their concentration at the fat-serum interface. When the labile to non-labile protective material ratio is sufficiently small that the fat globules are in an unstable state, they merge and lose their identity. This merger weakens the forces at the force centers of the fat globules to such an extent that the non-labile materials are released from the fat globule surfaces and are incorporated in the buttermilk, while the fat unites to form butter

Tests for cream sediment

Commercial milk plants have employed the sediment test for milk for many years. In fact, the milk sediment test has its place on the milk score card. The amount of sediment is always determined in scoring milk. The test is extremely simple; it consists of passing 1 pint of milk through a sediment tester and catching the sediment present in the milk on a circular pad 1 inch in diameter. The application of a sediment test to cream, on the other hand, has been attempted only very recently. A test as simple as that for milk is impossible. The cream’s high fat content necessitates warming it to melt the fat so that the sample will filter easily; the variable acidity of cream for butter-making necessitates the use of a neutralizing agent, in many instances in order that the filter pad will not clog. Because of the high fat content of the cream it is imperative to use less than a pint in order to reduce the cost and eliminate the handling of a bulky sample after dilution

Manufacture and Sale of Cultured Butter

Cultured butter, because of its pleasing and distinctive flavor, is finding new favor among consumers. Likewise, because of improved technology and an abundance of high quality raw materials readily available, it is now considered to be dependable butter and is winning new friends among butter dealers. The flavor in cultured butter is produced by adding from 1 to 3% of a milk culture of flavor producing bacteria directly to the butter during the working process. This gives a pleasing flavor to the butter which is maintained or increases slightly when the butter is held at household refrigerator temperatures for periods of 1 or 2 months. It is also maintained for at least 6 months when stored at 0°F. Consumers in Brookings and Sioux Falls showed a definite preference for butter with culture flavor over other butter and oleomargarine. Other consumer tests have given similar results. Butter quality in South Dakota has shown marked improvement since 1950. In that year a survey showed 81% of the butter was Grade B and 19% was Grade C. In 1959 the results of a similar survey were 22.3% Grade AA and A, 55.1% Grade B and 22.6% Grade C. Further improvement is possible and probable. The use of culture in more of Grades AA and A might result in increased demand for these grades of butter. Sales of this kind of butter have been increasing in this area

Hawaii energy strategy project 2: Fossil energy review. Task 3 -- Greenfield options: Prospects for LNG use

This paper begins with an overview of the Asia-Pacific LNG market, its major players, and the likely availability of LNG supplies in the region. The discussion then examines the possibilities for the economic supply of LNG to Hawaii, the potential Hawaiian market, and the viability of an LNG project on Oahu. This survey is far from a complete technical assessment or an actual engineering/feasibility study. The economics alone cannot justify LNG`s introduction. The debate may continue as to whether fuel diversification and environmental reasons can outweigh the higher costs. Several points are made. LNG is not a spot commodity. Switching to LNG in Hawaii would require a massive, long-term commitment and substantial investments. LNG supplies are growing very tight in the Asia-Pacific region. Some of the environmental benefits of LNG are not entirely relevant in Hawaii because Hawaii`s air quality is generally excellent. Any air quality benefits may be more than counterbalanced by the environmental hazards connected with large-scale coastal zone construction, and by the safety hazards of LNG carriers, pipelines, etc. Lastly, LNG is not suitable for all energy uses, and is likely to be entirely unsuitable for neighbor island energy needs

Disciplining Skepticism Through Kant’s Critique, Fichte’s Idealism, and Hegel’s Negations

This chapter considers the encounter of skepticism with the Kantian and post-Kantian philosophical enterprise and focuses on the intriguing feature whereby it is assimilated into this enterprise. In this period, skepticism becomes interchangeable with its other, which helps understand the proliferation of many kinds of views under its name and which forms the background for transforming skepticism into an anonymous, routine practice of raising objections and counter-objections to one’s own view. German philosophers of this era counterpose skepticism to dogmatism and criticism, ancient to modern skepticism, and, importantly, conceptualize the transitions from one form to another, which forms the conceptual matrix in which new disciplinary forms, such as psychology, anthropology, and historicism contend for cultural-intellectual standing beside philosophy. I present this assimilationist trajectory by reviewing three well-known moments of this encounter of skepticism and idealism: (1) Kant’s idealization of skepticism as a floating position amidst various philosophical positions through the dialectic, polemics, systematics, and history of pure reason; (2) Fichte’s schematic conception of skepticism as a dispute of systems in the early Wissenschaftslehre following his review of the skeptic G. E. Schulze’s attacks on Critical philosophy; (3) Hegel’s historicizing conception of skepticism in the context of differences between subjective idealism and speculative thought and his early Jena review of another work by the same skeptic Schulze