La signalisation du Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor et ses récepteurs dans les plaquettes

Initialement découvert au cerveau, le Brain-derived neutrophic factor (BDNF) est un facteur de croissance dont les mécanismes de relâche et la signalisation ont été bien étudiés dans le système nerveux central. Il est aussi retrouvé en concentrations importantes dans la circulation où il est emmagasiné dans les plaquettes avec des niveaux pouvant atteindre 100 à 1000 fois ceux des neurones. Malgré l’abondance du BDNF dans les plaquettes, sa fonction dans la physiologie plaquettaire n’a jamais été étudiée. Le but de ce projet était donc d’investiguer le rôle du BDNF dans la fonction plaquettaire et les mécanismes de signalisation impliqués dans la réponse plaquettaire au BDNF. Lorsque les plaquettes sont isolées et re-suspendues dans un tampon physiologique dépourvu de protéines plasmatiques, le BDNF induit une agrégation plaquettaire complète et biphasique qui dépend des voies secondaires de l’agrégation. La neurotrophine NT4 ainsi qu’un anticorps activateur du récepteur TrkB ont tous les deux induit une agrégation plaquettaire similaire à celle du BDNF suggérant un récepteur commun, le TrkB. Par immunobuvardage, cytométrie en flux et microscopie électronique, nous avons pu confirmer que les plaquettes expriment une forme tronquée du récepteur TrkB, au niveau intracellulaire et à leur surface. Les tests fonctionnels nous ont mené à impliquer les voies de rhoGTPase Rac1, la protéine kinase C (PKC) et la voie phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt dans l’agrégation plaquettaire induite par le BDNF. Une fois activées par le BDNF, les plaquettes relâchent plusieurs cytokines proinflammatoires et proangiogéniques qui peuvent jouer un rôle important dans le maintien et la réparation de l’intégrité vasculaire. Parmi les agents relâchés, on retrouve des facteurs de croissances comme le PDGF et le VEGF, mais aussi des chimiokines comme l’IL8 et ENA-78. Finalement, lorsque les expériences d’agrégation ont été répétées en plasma riche en plaquettes, l’effet pro-agrégant du BDNF était perdu, possiblement via une liaison de BDNF avec la protéine plasmatique α2-macroglobuline (α2M). Cette liaison à α2M, suggérée par des expériences de co-immunoprécipitation, réduit la biodisponibilité du BDNF et pourrait aider à contenir la réponse plaquettaire au BDNF aux sites de lésions vasculaires.The Brain-Derived Neutrophic Factor (BDNF) is a growth factor that was initially discovered in the brain. BDNF has both an autocrine and a paracrine role in neurons and its release and signaling mechanisms have been extensively studied in the central nervous system. Surprisingly, large quantities of BDNF have been reported in circulation, where it is essentially stored in platelets with concentrations reaching 100-1000-fold those of neurons. Despite this abundance, the function of BDNF in platelet biology has not been explored. Thus, this project sought to investigate the effect of BDNF on platelet function and the mechanisms underlying platelet responses to BDNF. In washed platelets, BDNF induced complete biphasic platelet aggregation that in part relied on amplification from secondary mediators. The low-affinity agonist neurotrophin-4 and an activating antibody raised against the canonical BDNF receptor TrkB induced similar platelet responses, implicating TrkB. Platelets express, both at their surface and in their intracellular compartment, a truncated form of TrkB lacking a tyrosine kinase domain. The BDNF-induced aggregation of washed platelets was prevented by inhibitors of the Rac1, PKC, and PI3K/Akt. Platelets exposed to BDNF secreted pro-angiogenic and pro-inflammatory cytokines, which may play a role in maintaining vascular homeostasis. Finally, in platelet-rich plasma, exogenous BDNF failed to induce aggregation and BDNF immunoprecipitates contained α2-macroglobulin immunoreactivity. Hence, platelets are rich in BDNF, which induce platelet aggregation via TrkB activation. The restriction of BDNF bioavailablility by plasma protein binding may serve to target BDNF-mediated platelet activation to sites of vascular injury

Tissue-specificity of antibodies raised against TrkB and p75NTR receptors ; implications for platelets as models of neurodegenerative diseases

Platelets and neurons share many similarities including comparable secretory granule types with homologous calcium-dependent secretory mechanisms as well as internalization, sequestration and secretion of many neurotransmitters. Thus, platelets present a high potential to be used as peripheral biomarkers to reflect neuronal pathologies. The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) acts as a neuronal growth factor involved in learning and memory through the binding of two receptors, the tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) and the 75 kDa pan-neurotrophic receptor (p75NTR). In addition to its expression in the central nervous system, BDNF is found in much greater quantities in blood circulation, where it is largely stored within platelets. Levels 100- to 1,000-fold those of neurons make platelets the most important peripheral reservoir of BDNF. This led us to hypothesize that platelets would express canonical BDNF receptors, i.e., TrkB and p75NTR, and that the receptors on platelets would bear significant resemblance to the ones found in the brain. However, herein we report discrepancies regarding detection of these receptors using antibody-based assays, with antibodies displaying important tissue-specificity. The currently available antibodies raised against TrkB and p75NTR should therefore be used with caution to study platelets as models for neurological disorders. Rigorous characterization of antibodies and bioassays appears critical to understand the interplay between platelet and neuronal biology of BDNF

Platelets selectively regulate the release of BDNF, but not that of its precursor protein, proBDNF

Background: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays a role in synaptic plasticity and neuroprotection. BDNF has well-established pro-survival effects, whereas its precursor protein, proBDNF, induces apoptosis. Thus, it has been suggested that the proBDNF/BDNF ratio could be an indicator of neuronal health. Access to neurons is, understandably, limited. Because of their similarities, platelets have been put forward as a non-invasive biomarker of neuronal health; indeed, they store large quantities of BDNF and can release it into circulation upon activation, similarly to neurons. However, whether platelets also express the precursor proBDNF protein remains unknown. We therefore sought to characterize proBDNF levels in human platelets and plasma. Methods: The presence of proBDNF was assessed by immunoblotting, cell fractionation, flow cytometry, and confocal microscopy in washed platelets from 10 healthy volunteers. Platelets from 20 independent healthy volunteers were activated with several classical agonists and the release of BDNF and proBDNF into plasma was quantified by ELISA. Results: Platelets expressed detectable levels of proBDNF (21 ± 13 fmol/250 x 106 platelets). ProBDNF expression was mainly localized in the intracellular compartment. The proBDNF to BDNF molar ratio was ~1:5 in platelets and 10:1 in plasma. In stark contrast to the release of BDNF during platelet activation, intraplatelet and plasma concentrations of proBDNF remained stable following stimulation with classical platelet agonists, consistent with non-granular expression. Conclusions: Platelets express both the mature and the precursor form of BDNF. Whether the intraplatelet proBDNF to BDNF ratio could be used as a non-invasive biomarker of cognitive health warrants further investigation

Postoperative administration of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, donepezil, interferes with bone healing and implant osseointegration in a rat model

Donepezil is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor commonly used to treat mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease. Its use has been associated with increased bone mass in humans and animals. However, the effect of postoperative administration of donepezil on bone healing remains unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the impact of postoperative injection of donepezil on bone healing, titanium-implant osseointegration, and soft tissue healing. Twenty-two Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to receive a daily dose of either donepezil (0.6 mg/kg) or saline as a control. In each rat, a uni-cortical defect was created in the right tibia metaphysis and a custom-made titanium implant was placed in the left tibiae. After two weeks, rats were euthanized, and their bones were analysed by Micro-CT and histology. The healing of bone defect and implant osseointegration in the rats treated with donepezil were significantly reduced compared to the saline-treated rats. Histomorphometric analysis showed lower immune cell infiltration in bone defects treated with donepezil compared to the saline-treated defects. On the other hand, the healing time of soft tissue wounds was significantly shorter in donepezil-treated rats compared to the controls. In conclusion, short-term administration of donepezil hinders bone healing whereas enhancing soft tissue healing

The brain-derived neurotrophic factor prompts platelet aggregation and secretion

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has both autocrine and paracrine roles in neurons, and its release and signaling mechanisms have been extensively studied in the central nervous system. Large quantities of BDNF have been reported in circulation, essentially stored in platelets with concentrations reaching 100- to 1000-fold those of neurons. Despite this abundance, the function of BDNF in platelet biology has not been explored. At low concentrations, BDNF primed platelets, acting synergistically with classical agonists. At high concentrations, BDNF induced complete biphasic platelet aggregation that in part relied on amplification from secondary mediators. Neurotrophin-4, but not nerve growth factor, and an activating antibody against the canonical BDNF receptor tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB) induced similar platelet responses to BDNF, suggesting TrkB could be the mediator. Platelets expressed, both at their surface and in their intracellular compartment, a truncated form of TrkB lacking its tyrosine kinase domain. BDNFinduced platelet aggregation was prevented by inhibitors of Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1), protein kinase C, and phosphoinositide 3-kinase. BDNF-stimulated platelets secreted a panel of angiogenic and inflammatory cytokines, which may play a role in maintaining vascular homeostasis. Two families with autism spectrum disorder were found to carry rare missense variants in the BDNF gene. Platelet studies revealed defects in platelet aggregation to low concentrations of collagen, as well as reduced adenosine triphosphate secretion in response to adenosine diphosphate. In summary, circulating BDNF levels appear to regulate platelet activation, aggregation, and secretion through activation of a truncated TrkB receptor and downstream kinase-dependent signaling

Algeria's potential to supply Europe with dispatchable solar electricity via HVDC links: Assessment and proposal of scenarios

The idea of exporting dispatchable solar electricity from the North African region to Europe is still the subject of several bilateral meetings, workshops, and conferences, despite doubts and previous failures with the Desertec concept. Given that each North African country has its own privacy policy, energy strategy, and distinct approach to the concept of renewable energy exports, while the potential of renewable energy sources varies from country to country, it would be very helpful to assess the potential and export opportunities of each country. In this respect, this paper focuses on the potential of Algeria. Several key factors that can make Algeria an attractive place to supply Europe with dispatchable solar electricity have been identified and discussed. The factors have been identified from the European perspective and can be used to analyze the potentials of neighboring countries. The barriers that could impede the export of dispatchable solar electricity from Algeria to Europe have also been identified. Based on certain given criteria, the paper provides some scenarios of possible solar electricity import corridors from Algeria to Europe. This work is timely as the Algerian government has expressed interest in exporting its surplus electricity to Europe and is studying an electricity interconnection project with Italy

Isolation of endothelial cells, pericytes and astrocytes from mouse brain.

Primary cell isolation from the central nervous system (CNS) has allowed fundamental understanding of blood-brain barrier (BBB) properties. However, poorly described isolation techniques or suboptimal cellular purity has been a weak point of some published scientific articles. Here, we describe in detail how to isolate and enrich, using a common approach, endothelial cells (ECs) from adult mouse brains, as well as pericytes (PCs) and astrocytes (ACs) from newborn mouse brains. Our approach allowed the isolation of these three brain cell types with purities of around 90%. Furthermore, using our protocols, around 3 times more PCs and 2 times more ACs could be grown in culture, as compared to previously published protocols. The cells were identified and characterized using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. The ability of ECs to form a tight monolayer was assessed for passages 0 to 3. The expression of claudin-5, occludin, zonula occludens-1, P-glycoprotein-1 and breast cancer resistance protein by ECs, as well as the ability of the cells to respond to cytokine stimuli (TNF-α, IFN-γ) was also investigated by q-PCR. The transcellular permeability of ECs was evaluated in the presence of pericytes or astrocytes in a Transwell® model by measuring the transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER), dextran-FITC and sodium fluorescein permeability. Overall, ECs at passages 0 and 1 featured the best properties valued in a BBB model. Furthermore, pericytes did not increase tightness of EC monolayers, whereas astrocytes did regardless of their seeding location. Finally, ECs resuspended in fetal bovine serum (FBS) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) could be cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen without affecting their phenotype nor their capacity to form a tight monolayer, thus allowing these primary cells to be used for various longitudinal in vitro studies of the blood-brain barrier