Post-head-emergence frost in wheat and barley: defining the problem, assessing the damage, and identifying resistance

Radiant frost is a significant production constraint to wheat (Triticum aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare), particularly in regions where spring-habit cereals are grown through winter, maturing in spring. However, damage to winter-habit cereals in reproductive stages is also reported. Crops are particularly susceptible to frost once awns or spikes emerge from the protection of the flag leaf sheath. Post-head-emergence frost (PHEF) is a problem distinct from other cold-mediated production constraints. To date, useful increased PHEF resistance in cereals has not been identified. Given the renewed interest in reproductive frost damage in cereals, it is timely to review the problem. Here we update the extent and impacts of PHEF and document current management options to combat this challenge. We clarify terminology useful for discussing PHEF in relation to chilling and other freezing stresses. We discuss problems characterizing radiant frost, the environmental conditions leading to PHEF damage, and the effects of frost at different growth stages. PHEF resistant cultivars would be highly desirable, to both reduce the incidence of direct frost damage and to allow the timing of crop maturity to be managed to maximize yield potential. A framework of potential adaptation mechanisms is outlined. Clarification of these critical issues will sharpen research focus, improving opportunities to identify genetic sources for improved PHEF resistance

Mapping the multi-step mechanism of a photoredox catalyzed atom-transfer radical polymerization reaction by direct observation of the reactive intermediates

The rapid development of new applications of photoredox catalysis has so far outpaced the mechanistic studies important for rational design of new classes of catalysts. Here, we report the use of ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopic methods to reveal both mechanistic and kinetic details of multiple sequential steps involved in an organocatalyzed atom transfer radical polymerization reaction. The polymerization system studied involves a N,N-diaryl dihydrophenazine photocatalyst, a radical initiator (methyl 2-bromopropionate) and a monomer (isoprene). Time-resolved spectroscopic measurements spanning sub-picosecond to microseconds (i.e., almost 8 orders of magnitude of time) track the formation and loss of key reactive intermediates. These measurements identify both the excited state of the photocatalyst responsible for electron transfer and the radical intermediates participating in propagation reactions, as well as quantifying their lifetimes. The outcomes connect the properties of N,N-diaryl dihydrophenazine organic photocatalysts with the rates of sequential steps in the catalytic cycle

Drought adaptation of stay-green sorghum is associated with canopy development, leaf anatomy, root growth, and water uptake

Stay-green sorghum plants exhibit greener leaves and stems during the grain-filling period under water-limited conditions compared with their senescent counterparts, resulting in increased grain yield, grain mass, and lodging resistance. Stay-green has been mapped to a number of key chromosomal regions, including Stg1, Stg2, Stg3, and Stg4, but the functions of these individual quantitative trait loci (QTLs) remain unclear. The objective of this study was to show how positive effects of Stg QTLs on grain yield under drought can be explained as emergent consequences of their effects on temporal and spatial water-use patterns that result from changes in leaf-area dynamics. A set of four Stg near-isogenic lines (NILs) and their recurrent parent were grown in a range of field and semicontrolled experiments in southeast Queensland, Australia. These studies showed that the four Stg QTLs regulate canopy size by: (1) reducing tillering via increased size of lower leaves, (2) constraining the size of the upper leaves; and (3) in some cases, decreasing the number of leaves per culm. In addition, they variously affect leaf anatomy and root growth. The multiple pathways by which Stg QTLs modulate canopy development can result in considerable developmental plasticity. The reduction in canopy size associated with Stg QTLs reduced pre-flowering water demand, thereby increasing water availability during grain filling and, ultimately, grain yield. The generic physiological mechanisms underlying the stay-green trait suggest that similar Stg QTLs could enhance post-anthesis drought adaptation in other major cereals such as maize, wheat, and rice

Drought adaptation of stay-green sorghum is associated with canopy development, leaf anatomy, root growth, and water uptake

Stay-green sorghum plants exhibit greener leaves and stems during the grain-filling period under water-limited conditions compared with their senescent counterparts, resulting in increased grain yield, grain mass, and lodging resistance. Stay-green has been mapped to a number of key chromosomal regions, including Stg1, Stg2, Stg3, and Stg4, but the functions of these individual quantitative trait loci (QTLs) remain unclear. The objective of this study was to show how positive effects of Stg QTLs on grain yield under drought can be explained as emergent consequences of their effects on temporal and spatial water-use patterns that result from changes in leaf-area dynamics. A set of four Stg near-isogenic lines (NILs) and their recurrent parent were grown in a range of field and semicontrolled experiments in southeast Queensland, Australia. These studies showed that the four Stg QTLs regulate canopy size by: (1) reducing tillering via increased size of lower leaves, (2) constraining the size of the upper leaves; and (3) in some cases, decreasing the number of leaves per culm. In addition, they variously affect leaf anatomy and root growth. The multiple pathways by which Stg QTLs modulate canopy development can result in considerable developmental plasticity. The reduction in canopy size associated with Stg QTLs reduced pre-flowering water demand, thereby increasing water availability during grain filling and, ultimately, grain yield. The generic physiological mechanisms underlying the stay-green trait suggest that similar Stg QTLs could enhance post-anthesis drought adaptation in other major cereals such as maize, wheat, and rice

Stay-green traits to improve wheat adaptation in well-watered and water-limited environments

A stay-green phenotype enables crops to retain green leaves longer after anthesis compared with senescent types, potentially improving yield. Measuring the normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) during the whole senescence period allows quantification of component stay-green traits contributing to a stay-green phenotype. These objective and standardized traits can be compared across genotypes and environments. Traits examined include maximum NDVI near anthesis (Nmax), senescence rate (SR), a trait integrating senescence (SGint), plus time from anthesis to onset (OnS), mid-point (MidS), and near completion (EndS) of senescence. The correlation between stay-green traits and yield was studied in eight contrasting environments ranging from well watered to severely water limited. Environments were each classified into one of the four major drought environment types (ETs) previously identified for the Australian wheat cropping system. SGint, OnS, and MidS tended to have higher values in higher yielding environments for a given genotype, as well as for higher yielding genotypes within a given environment. Correlation between specific stay-green traits and yield varied with ET. In the studied population, SGint, OnS, and MidS strongly correlated with yield in three of the four ETs which included well-watered environments (0.43–0.86), but less so in environments with only moderate water-stress after anthesis (−0.03 to 0.31). In contrast, Nmax was most highly correlated with yield under moderate post-anthesis water stress (0.31–0.43). Selection for particular stay-green traits, combinations of traits, and/or molecular markers associated with the traits could enhance genetic progress toward stay-green wheats with higher, more stable yield in both well-watered and water-limited conditions

Estimating Photosynthetic Attributes from High-Throughput Canopy Hyperspectral Sensing in Sorghum

Sorghum, a genetically diverse C(4) cereal, is an ideal model to study natural variation in photosynthetic capacity. Specific leaf nitrogen (SLN) and leaf mass per leaf area (LMA), as well as, maximal rates of Rubisco carboxylation (V (cmax)), phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylation (V (pmax)), and electron transport (J (max)), quantified using a C(4) photosynthesis model, were evaluated in two field-grown training sets (n = 169 plots including 124 genotypes) in 2019 and 2020. Partial least square regression (PLSR) was used to predict V (cmax) (R (2) = 0.83), V (pmax) (R (2) = 0.93), J (max) (R (2) = 0.76), SLN (R (2) = 0.82), and LMA (R (2) = 0.68) from tractor-based hyperspectral sensing. Further assessments of the capability of the PLSR models for V (cmax), V (pmax), J (max), SLN, and LMA were conducted by extrapolating these models to two trials of genome-wide association studies adjacent to the training sets in 2019 (n = 875 plots including 650 genotypes) and 2020 (n = 912 plots with 634 genotypes). The predicted traits showed medium to high heritability and genome-wide association studies using the predicted values identified four QTL for V (cmax) and two QTL for J (max). Candidate genes within 200 kb of the V (cmax) QTL were involved in nitrogen storage, which is closely associated with Rubisco, while not directly associated with Rubisco activity per se. J (max) QTL was enriched for candidate genes involved in electron transport. These outcomes suggest the methods here are of great promise to effectively screen large germplasm collections for enhanced photosynthetic capacity

Neighbourhood food environment and gestational diabetes in New York City: Neighbourhood food environment and gestational diabetes

The association between neighbourhood characteristics and gestational diabetes has not been examined previously. We investigated the relationship between the number of healthy food outlets (supermarkets; fruit/vegetable and natural food stores), and unhealthy food outlets (fast food; pizza; bodegas; bakeries; convenience, candy/nut and meat stores) in census tract of residence, and gestational diabetes in New York City. Gestational diabetes, census tract and individual-level covariates were ascertained from linked birth-hospital data for 210 926 singleton births from 2001 to 2002 and linked to commercial data on retail food outlets. Adjusted odds ratios (aOR) were estimated using a multilevel logistic model

Widespread Sequence Variations in VAMP1 across Vertebrates Suggest a Potential Selective Pressure from Botulinum Neurotoxins

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNT/A-G), the most potent toxins known, act by cleaving three SNARE proteins required for synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Previous studies on BoNTs have generally utilized the major SNARE homologues expressed in brain (VAMP2, syntaxin 1, and SNAP-25). However, BoNTs target peripheral motor neurons and cause death by paralyzing respiratory muscles such as the diaphragm. Here we report that VAMP1, but not VAMP2, is the SNARE homologue predominantly expressed in adult rodent diaphragm motor nerve terminals and in differentiated human motor neurons. In contrast to the highly conserved VAMP2, BoNT-resistant variations in VAMP1 are widespread across vertebrates. In particular, we identified a polymorphism at position 48 of VAMP1 in rats, which renders VAMP1 either resistant (I48) or sensitive (M48) to BoNT/D. Taking advantage of this finding, we showed that rat diaphragms with I48 in VAMP1 are insensitive to BoNT/D compared to rat diaphragms with M48 in VAMP1. This unique intra-species comparison establishes VAMP1 as a physiological toxin target in diaphragm motor nerve terminals, and demonstrates that the resistance of VAMP1 to BoNTs can underlie the insensitivity of a species to members of BoNTs. Consistently, human VAMP1 contains I48, which may explain why humans are insensitive to BoNT/D. Finally, we report that residue 48 of VAMP1 varies frequently between M and I across seventeen closely related primate species, suggesting a potential selective pressure from members of BoNTs for resistance in vertebrates