A genomic approach to the evolution, diversification and domestication of the genus Citrus

[EN] Citrus is a diverse genus within the Aurantioideae subfamily that comprises an undetermined number of pure species natively found in a vast territory extending from India to Japan and Australia. Besides pure species, countless citrus admixtures of commercial interest such as mandarins, oranges and lemons have been traditionally included in this genus, even though they are the product of several interspecific crosses between pure species. Recently, a genome-wide analysis provided the backbone of the Citrus phylogeny, showing that the wild species diverged from an ancestral citrus in a rapid radiation during the Late Miocene. Understanding the processes that shaped the evolution and domestication of the genus will provide novel insights in the field of plant genome evolution. In this doctoral thesis, multiple genomic approaches have been used to expand the existing knowledge on major determinants driving the processes of evolution, diversification and domestication in Citrus. First, a genome-wide Aurantioideae phylogeny was generated, revealing the existence of several independent dispersal events in this subfamily in the last 10 million years, from Asia to Africa and Australia, and rooting the Citrus genus within this subfamily. The Citrus phylogeny was then studied under the multispecies coalescent model, which can capture the variability generated during fast radiations. The dating of the speciation events allowed to advance original proposals on the paleogeographic events triggering the migration of the Citrus species through the South East Asian region. The Citrus radiation generated the great genetic and phenotypic diversity found in this genus. To investigate the effects of the Late Miocene climate change on the genomic structure of the Citrus pure species, the activity and evolution of retrotransposons, which can significantly alter the genome of their hosts, was analyzed. Most of the Citrus retrotransposon families are shared with Severinia buxifolia, an Aurantioideae species that diverged from Citrus more than 10 million years ago, implying that few retrotransposon families are specific to the genus Citrus. However, estimations of the retrotransposon insertion rates within Citrus revealed that, shortly after the radiation, the transposon activity rapidly changed among the different species. Hence, the data indicates that retrotransposon dynamics are linked to the stress caused by the Late Miocene climate change and the Citrus speciation, although specific responses likely depend on the particular evolutionary history of each species. The differences of gene expression in fruits of domesticated and wild cultivars were then studied to understand the role of interspecific hybridizations during Citrus domestication. The results presented suggest that these events, together with asexual propagation, were key for the domestication process. Different mechanisms explaining commercially relevant Citrus traits are also proposed. For example, pulp acidity in citrons and lemons is linked to an increased proton influx to the pulp vacuoles. The data also indicate that the peel pigmentation might be controlled by the additive effect of several minor genes, and not by a single gene or mechanism. Finally, an allele-dependent expression pattern of a chalcone synthase, involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis, advocates for the existence of a stepwise evolution in the mandarin flavonoid accumulation. All in all, the transcriptomic approach used in this work allowed to generate broader hypotheses that stand from a genus-wide perspective. Overall, the results provide a comprehensive framework of Citrus phylogenetic relationships, the effect of the mobile elements during its diversification and the role of interspecific hybridizations in the citrus domestication. The insights here exposed reveal the inherent complexity of the evolutionary history of this fascinating genus.[ES] El género Citrus (Aurantioideae) abarca un número desconocido de especies puras, nativas en buena parte del sudeste asiático y Oceanía. Muchas variedades comerciales, como mandarinas o naranjas, también forman parte de este género. Recientemente, la estructura de la filogenia del género Citrus ha sido publicada en un estudio el que se propone que los cítricos actuales surgieron en un proceso de radiación rápida durante el Mioceno tardío, hace 8 millones de años. Una mejor comprensión de los procesos involucrados en la evolución y posterior domesticación del género Citrus proporcionaría nuevas perspectivas en el ámbito de la genómica de plantas. En esta Tesis Doctoral se han empleado diversas estrategias genómicas para ampliar el conocimiento existente sobre los procesos implicados en la evolución, diversificación y domesticación de los cítricos. En primer lugar, se generó un árbol filogenético de las Aurantioideae, anclando el género Citrus dentro esta subfamilia. Esta filogenia reveló varios eventos de dispersión entre estas especies, generalmente desde Asia hacia África u Oceanía. Después, se estudió la filogenia del género Citrus empleando el modelo coalescente de multiespecie, que refleja la variabilidad inherente a los procesos de radiación. La datación de los distintos eventos de especiación ha permitido hacer nuevas propuestas sobre la paleogeografía y su papel en la distribución actual de los cítricos a lo largo del sudeste asiático. Para investigar los efectos del cambio climático del Mioceno tardío en el genoma de los cítricos, se analizó la actividad y la evolución de los retrotransposones como fuente de variabilidad genética en distintas especies de cítricos. Muchos de los retrotransposones de los cítricos también se encuentran en Severinia¿ un género de las aurantioideas que divergió del ancestro de los cítricos hace 10 millones de años, sugiriendo que pocos de los retrotransposones de cítricos son exclusivos de este género. En cambio, las tasas de inserción de retrotransposones en cítricos revelaron que la actividad de estos elementos cambió drásticamente entre especies poco después de la radiación de los cítricos. Por tanto, es posible que dicha actividad esté ligada al estrés climático durante el Mioceno tardío, así como a la especiación de los cítricos, aunque también parece verse afectada por las condiciones evolutivas particulares de las especies estudiadas. Por último, se estudiaron las diferencias en la expresión génica entre variedades domesticadas y especies salvajes para conocer el papel de las hibridaciones interespecíficas en la domesticación de los cítricos. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que dichas hibridaciones, junto a la propagación clonal, fueron clave para el proceso de domesticación. Estos resultados también permiten proponer un mecanismo que explica la acidez de la pulpa de cidros y limones basado en el flujo de protones al lumen vacuolar. Los datos también parecen indicar que el color de los cítricos no depende de un único gen, sino que depende del efecto aditivo de varios genes en conjunto. Finalmente, se descubrió una copia del gen de la chalcona sintasa, necesario para la síntesis de flavonoides, que tan solo se expresa en mandarinas y variedades derivadas, lo que sugiere que la acumulación de flavonoides en estas variedades proviene de un proceso evolutivo escalonado. La obtención de estos resultados fue posible gracias a la estrategia de análisis transcriptómico escogida, que abarca varias especies del género Citrus. En conclusión, los resultados presentados en este trabajo aportan un marco de trabajo global en la filogenia del género Citrus, además de realizar nuevas propuestas sobre el efecto de los elementos móviles en la diversificación de los cítricos y el papel de las hibridaciones interespecíficas durante su domesticación. Los datos presentados en este trabajo revelan la compl[CAT] El gènere Citrus (Aurantioideae) comprèn un nombre desconegut d'espècies pures, natives en un ampli territori que s'estén pel sud-est asiàtic i Oceania. Un gran nombre de varietats comercials de cítrics, com mandarines, taronges o llimes, també s'inclouen dins del gènere Citrus. L'estructura bàsica de la filogènia del gènere Citrus ha sigut publicada recentment, a un estudi al que es proposa que els cítrics actuals sorgiren en un procés de radiació ràpida que va tindre lloc en el Miocè superior, fa 8 milions d'anys. Una millor comprensió dels processos involucrats en l'evolució i posterior domesticació del gènere Citrus podria proporcionar noves perspectives dins de l'àmbit de l'evolució del genoma de plantes. Al llarg d'aquesta Tesi Doctoral s'han emprat diverses estratègies genòmiques per a ampliar el coneixement existent sobre els processos que van dirigir l'evolució, diversificació i domesticació dels cítrics. En primer lloc, es va generar una filogènia de les aurantioideas, ancorant el gènere Citrus dins d'aquesta subfamília. Esta filogènia va revelar l'existència de diversos esdeveniments de dispersió en estes espècies, generalment des d'Àsia cap a Àfrica o Oceania. Després, la filogènia dels cítrics es va estudiar emprant el model evolutiu coalescent multiespècie, que reflecteix la variabilitat inherent als processos de radiació ràpida. La datació de la especiació dels cítrics han permès fer noves propostes sobre la paleografia i el seu paper en la distribució actual dels cítrics per tot el sud-est asiàtic. Per a investigar els efectes del canvi climàtic ocorregut durant el Miocè superior en l'estructura genòmica dels cítrics, s'analitzà l'activitat i evolució dels retrotransposons com a font de variabilitat genètica en distintes espècies de cítrics. La majoria dels retrotransposons dels cítrics també es troben en Severinia¿ un gènere de les aurantioidees que va divergir de l'avantpassat dels cítrics fa 10 milions d'anys, la qual cosa suggereix que tan sols unes poques famílies de retrotransposons son exclusives dels cítrics. En canvi, l'estimació de les taxes d'inserció dels retrotransposons revela que l'activitat d'aquests elements va patir canvis dràstics entre espècies poc després de la radiació dels cítrics. Per tant, l'esmenada activitat podria estar lligada a l'estrès climàtic de finals del Miocé, així com a l'especiació dels cítrics, encara que també sembla veure's afectada per les condicions evolutives particulars de cada espècie. Finalment, es van estudiar les diferències a l'expressió gènica entre varietats domesticades i espècies salvatges per a conèixer el paper de les hibridacions interespecífiques en el procés de domesticació dels cítrics. Els resultats suggereixen que aquestes hibridacions, junt a la propagació clonal de les varietats de interès, foren clau en la domesticació. Els resultats també han permès proposar un mecanisme que explica l'acidesa de la polpa de poncems i llimes basat en el flux de protons al lumen vacuolar. D'altra banda, el color dels cítrics no pareix dependre d'un únic gen, sinó de l'efecte additiu de diversos gens en conjunt. Finalment, s'ha trobat una còpia del gen de la chalcona sintasa, necessària per a la síntesi de flavonoides, que tan sols s'expressa en mandarines i varietats derivades, suggerint que l'acumulació de flavonoides en aquestes varietats és el resultat d'un procés evolutiu escalonat. L'obtenció d'aquests resultats fou possible gràcies a l'estratègia d'anàlisi escollida, que inclou diverses espècies del gènere Citrus. En conclusió, els resultats presentats en aquest treball aporten un marc de treball global a la filogènia dels cítrics, a banda de permetre realitzar noves propostes sobre el efecte dels elements mòbils en la diversificació dels cítrics i el paper de les hibridacions interespecífiques durant la seua domesticació. Les dades presentaBorredá Fernández, C. (2021). A genomic approach to the evolution, diversification and domestication of the genus Citrus [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/176003TESI

Transcriptome analysis of the pulp of citrus fruitlets suggests that domestication enhanced growth processes and reduced chemical defenses increasing palatability

To identify key traits brought about by citrus domestication, we have analyzed the transcriptomes of the pulp of developing fruitlets of inedible wild Ichang papeda (Citrus ichangensis), acidic Sun Chu Sha Kat mandarin (C. reticulata) and three palatable segregants of a cross between commercial Clementine (C. x clementina) and W. Murcott (C. x reticulata) mandarins, two pummelo/mandarin admixtures of worldwide distribution. RNA-seq comparison between the wild citrus and the ancestral sour mandarin identified 7267 differentially expressed genes, out of which 2342 were mapped to 117 KEGG pathways. From the remaining genes, a set of 2832 genes was functionally annotated and grouped into 45 user-defined categories. The data suggest that domestication promoted fundamental growth processes to the detriment of the production of chemical defenses, namely, alkaloids, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, glucosinolates and cyanogenic glucosides. In the papeda, the generation of energy to support a more active secondary metabolism appears to be dependent upon upregulation of glycolysis, fatty acid degradation, Calvin cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and ATP-citrate lyase and GABA pathways. In the acidic mandarin, downregulation of cytosolic citrate degradation was concomitant with vacuolar citrate accumulation. These changes affected nitrogen and carbon allocation in both species leading to major differences in organoleptic properties since the reduction of unpleasant secondary metabolites increases palatability while acidity reduces acceptability. The comparison between the segregants and the acidic mandarin identified 357 transcripts characterized by the occurrence in the three segregants of additional downregulation of secondary metabolites and basic structural cell wall components. The segregants also showed upregulation of genes involved in the synthesis of methyl anthranilate and furaneol, key substances of pleasant fruity aroma and flavor, and of sugar transporters relevant for sugar accumulation. Transcriptome and qPCR analysis in developing and ripe fruit of a set of genes previously associated with citric acid accumulation, demonstrated that lower acidity is linked to downregulation of these regulatory genes in the segregants. The results suggest that the transition of inedible papeda to sour mandarin implicated drastic gene expression reprograming of pivotal pathways of the primary and secondary metabolism, while palatable mandarins evolved through progressive refining of palatability properties, especially acidity

Single-nucleotide mosaicism in citrus: Estimations of somatic mutation rates and total number of variants

Most of the hundreds of citrus varieties are derived from spontaneous mutations. We characterized the dynamics of single-nucleotide mosaicism in a 36-yr-old clementine (Citrus ×clementina hort. ex Tanaka) tree, a commercial citrus whose vegetative behavior is known in detail. Whole-genome sequencing identified 73 reliable somatic mutations, 48% of which were transitions from G/C to A/T, suggesting ultraviolet (UV) exposure as mutagen. The mutations accumulated in sectorized areas of the tree in a nested hierarchy determined by the branching pattern, although some variants detected in the basal parts were also found in the new growth and were fixed in some branches and leaves of much younger age. The estimate of mutation rates in our tree was 4.4 × 10−10 bp−1 yr−1, a rate in the range reported in other perennials. Assuming a perfect configuration and taking advantage of previous counts on the number of total leaves of typical clementine trees, these mutation determinations allowed to estimate for the first time the total number of variants present in a standard adult tree (1,500–5,000) and the somatic mutations generated in a typical leaf flush (0.92–1.19). From an evolutionary standpoint, the sectoral distribution of somatic mutations and the habit of periodic foliar renewal of long-lived plants appear to increase genetic heterogeneity and, therefore, the adaptive role of somatic mutations reducing the mutational load and providing fitness benefits

Reprogramming of Retrotransposon Activity during Speciation of the Genus Citrus.

Speciation of the genus Citrus from a common ancestor has recently been established to begin 8Ma during the late Miocene, a period of major climatic alterations. Here, we report the changes in activity of Citrus LTR retrotransposons during the process of diversification that gave rise to the current Citrus species. To reach this goal, we analyzed four pure species that diverged early during Citrus speciation, three recent admixtures derived from those species and an outgroup of the Citrus clade. More than 30,000 retrotransposons were grouped in ten linages. Estimations of LTR insertion times revealed that retrotransposon activity followed a species-specific pattern of change that could be ascribed to one of three different models. In some genomes, the expected pattern of gradual transposon accumulation was suddenly arrested during the radiation of the ancestor that gave birth to the current Citrus species. The individualized analyses of retrotransposon lineages showed that in each and every species studied, not all lineages follow the general pattern of the species itself. For instance, in most of the genomes, the retrotransposon activity of elements from the SIRE lineage reached its highest level just before Citrus speciation, while for Retrofit elements, it has been steadily growing. Based on these observations, we propose that Citrus retrotransposons may respond to stressful conditions driving speciation as a part of the genetic response involved in adaptation. This proposal implies that the evolving conditions of each species interact with the internal regulatory mechanisms of the genome controlling the proliferation of mobile elements

Shaping the biology of citrus: II. Genomic determinants of domestication

We performed genomic analyses on species and varieties of the genus Citrus to identify several determinants of domestication, based on the pattern of pummelo [Citrus maxima (Burr. f) Merr] and mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) admixture into the ancestral genome, as well as population genetic tests at smaller scales. Domestication impacted gene families regulating pivotal components of citrus flavor (such as acidity) because in edible mandarin varieties, chromosome areas with negative Tajimas values were enriched with genes associated with the regulation of citric acid. Detection of sweeps in edible mandarins that diverged from wild relatives indicated that domestication reduced chemical defenses involving cyanogenesis and alkaloid synthesis, thus increasing palatability. Also, a cluster of SAUR genes in domesticated mandarins derived from the pummelo genome appears to contain candidate genes controlling fruit size. Similarly, conserved stretches of pure mandarin areas were likely important as well for domestication, as, for example, a fragment in chromosome 1 that is involved in the apomictic reproduction of most edible mandarins. Interestingly, our results also support the hypothesis that various genes subject to selective pressure during evolution or derived from whole genome duplication events later became potential targets of domestication

The G123 rice mutant, carrying a mutation in SE13, presents alterations in the expression patterns of photosynthetic and major flowering regulatory genes.

Day length is a determinant of flowering time in rice. Phytochromes participate in flowering regulation by measuring the number of daylight hours to which the plant is exposed. Here we describe G123, a rice mutant generated by irradiation, which displays insensitivity to the photoperiod and early flowering under both long day and short day conditions. To detect the mutation responsible for the early flowering phenotype exhibited by G123, we generated an F2 population, derived from crossing with the wild-type, and used a pipeline to detect genomic structural variation, initially developed for human genomes. We detected a deletion in the G123 genome that affects the PHOTOPERIOD SENSITIVITY13 (SE13) gene, which encodes a phytochromobilin synthase, an enzyme implicated in phytochrome chromophore biosynthesis. The transcriptomic analysis, performed by RNA-seq, in the G123 plants indicated an alteration in photosynthesis and other processes related to response to light. The expression patterns of the main flowering regulatory genes, such as Ghd7, Ghd8 and PRR37, were altered in the plants grown under both long day and short day conditions. These findings indicate that phytochromes are also involved in the regulation of these genes under short day conditions, and extend the role of phytochromes in flowering regulation in rice

Comparative transcriptomics of wild and commercial Citrus during early ripening reveals how domestication shaped fruit gene expression

Background: Interspecific hybridizations and admixtures were key in Citrus domestication, but very little is known about their impact at the transcriptomic level. To determine the effects of genome introgressions on gene expression, the transcriptomes of the pulp and flavedo of three pure species (citron, pure mandarin and pummelo) and four derived domesticated genetic admixtures (sour orange, sweet orange, lemon and domesticated mandarin) have been analyzed at color break. Results: Many genes involved in relevant physiological processes for domestication, such sugar/acid metabolism and carotenoid/flavonoid synthesis, were differentially expressed among samples. In the low-sugar, highly acidic species lemon and citron, many genes involved in sugar metabolism, the TCA cycle and GABA shunt displayed a reduced expression, while the P-type ATPase CitPH5 and most subunits of the vacuolar ATPase were overexpressed. The redcolored species and admixtures were generally characterized by the overexpression in the flavedo of specific pivotal genes involved in the carotenoid biosynthesis, including phytoene synthase, ζ-carotene desaturase, β-lycopene cyclase and CCD4b, a carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase. The expression patterns of many genes involved in flavonoid modifications, especially the flavonoid and phenylpropanoid O-methyltransferases showed extreme diversity. However, the most noticeable differential expression was shown by a chalcone synthase gene, which catalyzes a key step in the biosynthesis of flavonoids. This chalcone synthase was exclusively expressed in mandarins and their admixed species, which only expressed the mandarin allele. In addition, comparisons between wild and domesticated mandarins revealed that the major differences between their transcriptomes concentrate in the admixed regions. Conclusion: In this work we present a first study providing broad evidence that the genome introgressions that took place during citrus domestication largely shaped gene expression in their fruits