Cassava foliage for monogastric animals

The study was aiming to evaluate cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) managed as a forage crop with respect to biomass yield, and to determine its value as a feed for monogastric animals. Two common cassava varieties, one short- (ST) and one long-term (LT), grown in Cambodia, were studied with the aim of assessing forage yield, and effects on soil fertility and the utilization of the leaves as a feed for pigs and poultry. The ST variety was intercropped with Desmanthus virgatus or Gliricidia sepium and the LT variety was fertilised with effluent from biodigesters loaded with either cow (CM) or pig manure (PM). Intercropping of cassava with legumes increased total biomass dry matter (DM) yield and resulted in a higher proportion of cassava leaves, while fertilizing with PM produced the highest cassava total forage and leaf DM yields. The crude protein (CP) content on a DM basis in cassava leaf, and stem plus petiole, was 24-25% and 8-10%, respectively. It was estimated that D. virgatus and G. sepium fixed 1/3 and 1/2 of the amounts of nitrogen (N) removed by the cassava forage, respectively, while the N uptake was 67 and 27% above the N inputs from PM and CM, respectively. Both sun-drying and ensiling were efficient in reducing the hydrogen cyanide (HCN) content in cassava leaves, although ensiling after sun wilting was more effective. Pigs utilized the nutrients in cassava leaf silage (CLS) more efficiently than in cassava leaf meal (CLM) and leaves from the ST and LT varieties were utilized equally. Mong Cai (MC) pigs digested dietary fibre components better than Large White x Yorkshire (LxY) pigs, although N utilization was higher in LxY than MC pigs. Increasing CLM level in poultry diets slightly increased DM intake and decreased the digestibility of DM. Increasing dietary CLM increased the weight and length of most parts of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and associated internal organs, except for proventriculus weight and colon length. Broiler chickens and White Pekin ducks had higher GIT and internal organ weights and lengths than local ducks and chickens, respectively, when expressed in absolute units. However, when expressed as kg-1 body weight, these values were higher in the local birds, except for small intestine weights, which were similar. Ducks had longer small intestines and higher small intestine, gizzard, pancreas and liver weights as kg-1 body weight than chickens, while weights of caeca and colon, were higher in chickens. It is concluded that both ST and LT cassava varieties have the potential to produce high protein forage for monogastric animals. Pigs utilized cassava leaf silage more efficiently than sun-dried leaves. Increasing cassava leaf meal in the diet reduced DM digestibility and increased the length and weight of most parts of the gastrointestinal tract and associated organs of chickens and ducks

Growth and survival of reared Cambodian field crickets (Teleogryllus testaceus) fed weeds, agricultural and food industry by-products

This study evaluated survival and growth of Cambodian field crickets (Teleogryllus testaceus) during captivity when fed a set of local weed species, agricultural and food industry by-products. Wild individuals were caught at two locations in Cambodia, kept in pens and fed commercial chicken feed until the second generation off-spring hatched. First larval stage nymphs from this generation were collected and used in a 70-day feeding trial with one control treatment (chicken feed) and 12 experimental treatments (rice bran, cassava plant tops, water spinach, spent grain, residue from mungbean sprout production, and Alternanthera sessilis, Amaranthus spinosus, Commelina benghalensis, Cleome rutidosperma, Cleome viscosa, Boerhavia diffusa and Synedrela nodiflora). The crickets were kept in plastic cages and feed intake, weight and survival of crickets were recorded weekly. Overall survival did not differ between chicken feed and the experimental treatments with the exception of crickets fed B. diffusa, which had lower survival. From day 35 to day 49, survival on A. sessilis was also lower (P<0.05) than on chicken feed. There was no difference in weight between crickets fed chicken feed, cassava tops and C. rutidosperma. However, crickets fed A. sessilis, A. spinosus and B. diffusa weighed less than those fed chicken feed already at day 21. The feed conversion rate ranged from 1.6 to 3.9 and was ≤1.9 in crickets fed chicken feed, cassava plant tops and C. rutidosperma. Thus this study shows that it is possible, using simple means, to rear Cambodian field crickets. Cassava plant tops and C. rutidosperma both have great potential as cricket feed and the other weeds, with the exception of A. sessilis, A. spinosus and B. diffusa, agricultural and food industry by-products tested, also showed potential

Distribution of selected healthcare resources for influenza pandemic response in Cambodia.

INTRODUCTION: Human influenza infection poses a serious public health threat in Cambodia, a country at risk for the emergence and spread of novel influenza viruses with pandemic potential. Prior pandemics demonstrated the adverse impact of influenza on poor communities in developing countries. Investigation of healthcare resource distribution can inform decisions regarding resource mobilization and investment for pandemic mitigation. METHODS: A health facility survey performed across Cambodia obtained data on availability of healthcare resources important for pandemic influenza response. Focusing on five key resources considered most necessary for treating severe influenza (inpatient beds, doctors, nurses, oseltamivir, and ventilators), resource distributions were analyzed at the Operational District (OD) and Province levels, refining data analysis from earlier studies. Resources were stratified by respondent type (hospital vs. District Health Office [DHO]). A summary index of distribution inequality was calculated using the Gini coefficient. Indices for local spatial autocorrelation were measured at the OD level using geographical information system (GIS) analysis. Finally, a potential link between socioeconomic status and resource distribution was explored by mapping resource densities against poverty rates. RESULTS: Gini coefficient calculation revealed variable inequality in distribution of the five key resources at the Province and OD levels. A greater percentage of the population resides in areas of relative under-supply (28.5%) than over-supply (21.3%). Areas with more resources per capita showed significant clustering in central Cambodia while areas with fewer resources clustered in the northern and western provinces. Hospital-based inpatient beds, doctors, and nurses were most heavily concentrated in areas of the country with the lowest poverty rates; however, beds and nurses in Non-Hospital Medical Facilities (NHMF) showed increasing concentrations at higher levels of poverty. CONCLUSIONS: There is considerable heterogeneity in healthcare resource distribution across Cambodia. Distribution mapping at the local level can inform policy decisions on where to stockpile resources in advance of and for reallocation in the event of a pandemic. These findings will be useful in determining future health resource investment, both for pandemic preparedness and for general health system strengthening, and provide a foundation for future analyses of equity in health services provision for pandemic mitigation planning in Cambodia

Growth and survival of reared Cambodian field crickets (Teleogryllus testaceus) fed weeds, agricultural and food industry by-products

This study evaluated survival and growth of Cambodian field crickets (Teleogryllus testaceus) during captivity when fed a set of local weed species, agricultural and food industry by-products. Wild individuals were caught at two locations in Cambodia, kept in pens and fed commercial chicken feed until the second generation off-spring hatched. First larval stage nymphs from this generation were collected and used in a 70-day feeding trial with one control treatment (chicken feed) and 12 experimental treatments (rice bran, cassava plant tops, water spinach, spent grain, residue from mungbean sprout production, and Alternanthera sessilis, Amaranthus spinosus, Commelina benghalensis, Cleome rutidosperma, Cleome viscosa, Boerhavia diffusa and Synedrela nodiflora). The crickets were kept in plastic cages and feed intake, weight and survival of crickets were recorded weekly. Overall survival did not differ between chicken feed and the experimental treatments with the exception of crickets fed B. diffusa, which had lower survival. From day 35 to day 49, survival on A. sessilis was also lower (P<0.05) than on chicken feed. There was no difference in weight between crickets fed chicken feed, cassava tops and C. rutidosperma. However, crickets fed A. sessilis, A. spinosus and B. diffusa weighed less than those fed chicken feed already at day 21. The feed conversion rate ranged from 1.6 to 3.9 and was ≤1.9 in crickets fed chicken feed, cassava plant tops and C. rutidosperma. Thus this study shows that it is possible, using simple means, to rear Cambodian field crickets. Cassava plant tops and C. rutidosperma both have great potential as cricket feed and the other weeds, with the exception of A. sessilis, A. spinosus and B. diffusa, agricultural and food industry by-products tested, also showed potential

Effectiveness and implementation challenges of a livestock asset transfer intervention for smallholders in community-protected areas in Cambodia

BACKGROUND: Limited opportunities to generate income in community-protected areas (CPAs) often lead to the illegal harvesting of wildlife and natural resources, undermining the aim of protected areas. Sustained livestock production can be an alternative income source. OBJECTIVES: To understand the effectiveness and feasibility of livestock production in CPAs. METHODS: We conducted a livestock asset transfer intervention in 25 CPAs across three agroecological zones in Cambodia. We monitored livestock mortality, consumption and sales of livestock over 2 years. Participant observations and structured questionnaires were conducted to elicit information about constraints for livestock production perceived by the participants. A total of 756 households were recruited and 320, 184 and 252 households received chicken, pigs and cattle, respectively. All participants received technical training in livestock production and biosecurity management practices. RESULTS: After the intervention, the number of chickens, pigs and cattle increased on average by 5.9 (range: 0.3-26.3), 0.5 (-1 to 2.7) and 0.12 (0-0.35) per 1 input animal, respectively. The extent of increase was significantly different between zones only for chickens (Kruskal-Wallis test p = 0.004). The number of chickens and pigs sold per household was significantly different among zones. We observed that training was ineffective to alter livestock management practices in some CPAs, which partially explains their suboptimal performance of livestock production. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding contextual factors required for successful livestock production in CPAs is crucial for improving livelihoods and preventing biodiversity loss in Cambodia

Diarrhea illness in livestock keeping households in Cambodia: An analysis using a One Health framework

Background: Most of human diarrheal pathogens are zoonotic, and transmission of the pathogens can occur by contaminated food, water, environment and direct contact with animals especially for livestock keepers. Yet little is known of the relative importance of different risk factors especially in under-studied countries. The objectives of this study were to identify risk factors for diarrhea in livestock keepers in Cambodia and detect diarrhea-causing pathogenic bacteria in both humans and livestock within a One Health approach. Of special interest were the links between diarrhea and food consumption and livestock-keeping. Materials and methods: We used an existing dataset from a questionnaire survey conducted in 400 livestock farms in Prey Veng and Kampot Prefectures between February and March 2013 as well as laboratory results on bacterial isolation from fecal and swab samples from livestock and poultry, and human stool samples. Laboratory results were available for up to three animals of each species kept by a household, and for up to three human samples from households reporting at least one case of human diarrhea in the previous 2 weeks. Presence of Escherichia coli, Shigella spp. and Salmonella spp. was investigated in both animal and human samples, in addition to Aeromonas spp., Vibrio spp. and Plesiomonas spp. in animal samples and Campylobacter spp. in human samples. Univariable and multivariable risk factor analyses were performed by generalized linear mixed model. Results: Household-level diarrhea incidence rate was 9.0% (36/400). The most statistically significant factor associated with diarrhea in multivariable analysis was water treatment for drinking and cooking (OR = 0.33, 95%CI: 0.16–0.69, p = 0.003), followed by number of days consuming egg within 2 weeks (OR = 1.16, 95%CI: 1.04–1.29, p = 0.008), number of children under 5 years old (OR = 1.99, 95%CI: 1.14–3.49, p = 0.016) and keeping poultry (OR = 0.36, 95%CI: 0.14–0.92, p = 0.033). Animal samples for bacterial culture test were collected at 279 cattle, 165 pig and 327 poultry farms, and bacteria were detected from 6 farms with the isolation of Escherichia coli O157 (non H7) from 1 cattle and 1 pig sample, Aeromonas caviae from 1 pig sample and Salmonella spp. from 3 chicken samples. In human samples, 17 out of 67 individual samples were positive for the culture test, detecting Escherichia coli O157 (non H7) from 7 samples and Shigella spp. from 10 samples. None of the households where target bacteria were detected from animal samples had human samples collected due to lack of diarrhea episodes in the household. Conclusions: It has often been hypothesized that keeping livestock may increase the incidence of diarrhea through multiple pathways. Contrary to this, we found livestock-keeping was not associated with increased risk, but food-related behavior and children under 5 years of age were strongly associated with increased risk. We discuss mediating and confounding factors and make recommendations for reducing the burden of diarrheal disease in Cambodia and more widely in low- and middle-income countries

Diarrhea illness in livestock keeping households in Cambodia: An analysis using a One Health framework

BackgroundMost of human diarrheal pathogens are zoonotic, and transmission of the pathogens can occur by contaminated food, water, environment and direct contact with animals especially for livestock keepers. Yet little is known of the relative importance of different risk factors especially in under-studied countries. The objectives of this study were to identify risk factors for diarrhea in livestock keepers in Cambodia and detect diarrhea-causing pathogenic bacteria in both humans and livestock within a One Health approach. Of special interest were the links between diarrhea and food consumption and livestock-keeping.Materials and methodsWe used an existing dataset from a questionnaire survey conducted in 400 livestock farms in Prey Veng and Kampot Prefectures between February and March 2013 as well as laboratory results on bacterial isolation from fecal and swab samples from livestock and poultry, and human stool samples. Laboratory results were available for up to three animals of each species kept by a household, and for up to three human samples from households reporting at least one case of human diarrhea in the previous 2 weeks. Presence of Escherichia coli, Shigella spp. and Salmonella spp. was investigated in both animal and human samples, in addition to Aeromonas spp., Vibrio spp. and Plesiomonas spp. in animal samples and Campylobacter spp. in human samples. Univariable and multivariable risk factor analyses were performed by generalized linear mixed model.ResultsHousehold-level diarrhea incidence rate was 9.0% (36/400). The most statistically significant factor associated with diarrhea in multivariable analysis was water treatment for drinking and cooking (OR = 0.33, 95%CI: 0.16–0.69, p = 0.003), followed by number of days consuming egg within 2 weeks (OR = 1.16, 95%CI: 1.04–1.29, p = 0.008), number of children under 5 years old (OR = 1.99, 95%CI: 1.14–3.49, p = 0.016) and keeping poultry (OR = 0.36, 95%CI: 0.14–0.92, p = 0.033). Animal samples for bacterial culture test were collected at 279 cattle, 165 pig and 327 poultry farms, and bacteria were detected from 6 farms with the isolation of Escherichia coli O157 (non H7) from 1 cattle and 1 pig sample, Aeromonas caviae from 1 pig sample and Salmonella spp. from 3 chicken samples. In human samples, 17 out of 67 individual samples were positive for the culture test, detecting Escherichia coli O157 (non H7) from 7 samples and Shigella spp. from 10 samples. None of the households where target bacteria were detected from animal samples had human samples collected due to lack of diarrhea episodes in the household.ConclusionsIt has often been hypothesized that keeping livestock may increase the incidence of diarrhea through multiple pathways. Contrary to this, we found livestock-keeping was not associated with increased risk, but food-related behavior and children under 5 years of age were strongly associated with increased risk. We discuss mediating and confounding factors and make recommendations for reducing the burden of diarrheal disease in Cambodia and more widely in low- and middle-income countries

Human H5N1 influenza infections in Cambodia 2005-2011: case series and cost-of-illness.

BACKGROUND: Southeast Asia has been identified as a potential epicentre of emerging diseases with pandemic capacity, including highly pathogenic influenza. Cambodia in particular has the potential for high rates of avoidable deaths from pandemic influenza due to large gaps in health system resources. This study seeks to better understand the course and cost-of-illness for cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza in Cambodia. METHODS: We studied the 18 laboratory-confirmed cases of avian influenza subtype H5N1 identified in Cambodia between January 2005 and August 2011. Medical records for all patients were reviewed to extract information on patient characteristics, travel to hospital, time to admission, diagnostic testing, treatment and disease outcomes. Further data related to costs was collected through interviews with key informants at district and provincial hospitals, the Ministry of Health and non-governmental organisations. An ingredient-based approach was used to estimate the total economic cost for each study patient. Costing was conducted from a societal perspective and included both financial and opportunity costs to the patient or carer. Sensitivity analysis was undertaken to evaluate potential change or variation in the cost-of-illness. RESULTS: Of the 18 patients studied, 11 (61%) were under the age of 18 years. The majority of patients (16, 89%) died, eight (44%) within 24 hours of hospital admission. There was an average delay of seven days between symptom onset and hospitalisation with patients travelling an average of 148 kilometres (8-476 km) to the admitting hospital. Five patients were treated with oseltamivir of whom two received the recommended dose. For the 16 patients who received all their treatment in Cambodia the average per patient cost of H5N1 influenza illness was US$300 of which 85.0$45 per patient (15.0%) of total economic cost. CONCLUSION: Cases of avian influenza in Cambodia were characterised by delays in hospitalisation, deficiencies in some aspects of treatment and a high fatality rate. The costs associated with medical care, particularly diagnostic testing and pharmaceutical therapy, were major contributors to the relatively high cost-of-illness