Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) of penaeid shrimps: Global perspective

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations Agricultural Outlook 2015-2024 reported that fisheries production worldwide is projected to expand by 19% between the 2012-14 base period and 2024, to reach 191 million metric tons (MT) and the main driver of this increase will be aquaculture, which is expected to reach 96 million MT by 2024, 38% higher than the base period (average 2012-14) level. Among the 7 key uncertainties that affect gains in productivity, the potential of animal disease outbreaks to affect aquaculture production and subsequently domestic and international markets are once again highlighted, although for the first time in this outlook. Another milestone document, the Blue frontiers: managing the environmental costs of aquaculture identified a number of fish health issues, including increased risk of the spread of pathogens and diseases with intensification, through increased movement of aquatic animals, inter-regional trade and introduction of new species and new strains, and through the use of trash fish or live feed; concerns on residues and development of drug resistant pathogens brought about by the abuse on the use antimicrobials and other veterinary drugs; limited availability of vaccines; environmental stressors that compromise the immune system; difficulties faced by developing countries in implementing international standards; and the need for legislation, enforcement and capacity building. The issues identified then and now are almost the same. Addressing animal health issues in aquaculture is very challenging because the sector is highly complex (with a wide range of diversity in terms of species, systems, practices and environment, each presenting different risks), its fluid environment, and the transboundary nature where fish is considered as one of the most traded commodity, aquatic animals require more attention in order to monitor their health: they are not visible except in tank holding conditions; they live in a complex and dynamic environment and feed consumption and mortalities are hidden under water. This paper looks at the status of a newly emerging disease of cultured shrimp, acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND), which has been recognized as the most important non-viral disease threat to cultured shrimp. In particular, this paper presents the highlights of the International Technical Seminar/Workshop: EMS/AHPND: Government, Scientist and Farmer Responses held from 22-24 June 2015 in Panama City, Panama, which was organized under the auspices of an FAO inter-regional project TCP/INT/3502: Reducing and Managing the Risks of AHPND of Cultured Shrimp, being participated by 11 countries, namely: Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama and Peru from Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) region and India, Iran, the Philippines and Sri Lanka from the Asian region. The Panama EMS/AHPND June 2015 event aimed to provide a platform to improve the understanding of the disease through the lens of governments, scientists and producers and collectively generate practical management and control measures. More than 100 stakeholders from 21 countries representing the government, academe and producer sectors participated in the event. The highlights contain the latest available information at that time (June 2015) about AHPND including the current state of knowledge about the causative agent, the host and geographical distribution, detection methods, risk factors, management and actions of regional and international organizations

Risk analysis in aquaculture

The information presented in this paper were taken from several key FAO documents. The objective is to continuously raise awareness about the concept of risk analysis and its application to the aquaculture sector. The paper provides information in response to several key risk questions, e.g.: (1) what is risk versus hazard, (2) what is risk analysis, (3) who uses risk analysis, (4) why do countries need to be able to use risk analysis? An overview of the risks in aquaculture is also provided in terms of the process and approaches; and the different risk sectors in aquaculture. The paper concludes with some key points and challenges. Risk analysis is a decisionmaking tool that contributes to protecting national health and welfare. It can also contribute to sustainable aquaculture and the success of individual aquaculture businesses and operations. Risk analysis does not stand alone - it supports and is supported by other components of a National Strategy on Aquatic Animal Health. A basic strength of the risk analysis process is its flexibility - it is adaptable to almost any sector/system where risk and uncertainty occur. Countries will often be confronted with a lack of scientific information, both quality and quantity, to support the risk analysis process. Nevertheless, governments must often act under these uncertainties as well as make decisions in the face of a great deal of complexity, significant variability, and multiple management goals

Way forward

The overall objective of this technical consultation is to bring together the representatives of ASEAN Member States and technical experts to examine the status of aquatic emergency preparedness and response systems currently being practiced in the region in order to identify gaps and other initiatives for regional cooperation. In the general sense, the RTC is successful in achieving the general objective. As for the specific objectives, (a) to assess existing laws, legislations and standard operating procedures (SOPs), among others had been partially achieved. This is because the consultation didn t assess but was only informed (through the reports of country representatives) of the current situation in ASEAN member countries. The way forward of this is to complete the EPRS audit questionnaire as basis of the more systematic assessment. The second objective is (b) to assess the need for a regional aquatic EPRS in the ASEAN, the participant voted in the affirmative. The way forward of this is to create the ASEAN guidelines including the mechanics. The third objective is to (c) enhance cooperation among Member States, regional/international organizations and other relevant stakeholders on initiatives that support aquatic EPRS for effective management of aquatic animal disease outbreaks. This objective has been achieved. The way forward for this is to get the same people for a planned and proposed consultation II for continuity and for emphasis on more private sector and academe representation

Responsible Aquaculture in 2050: Valuing Local Conditions and Human Innovations Will Be Key to Success

As aquaculture production expands, we must avoid mistakes made during increasing intensification of agriculture. Understanding environmental impacts and measures to mitigate them is important for designing responsible aquaculture production systems. There are four realistic goals that can make future aquaculture operations more sustainable and productive: (I) improvement of management practices to create more efficient and diverse systems at every production level; (2) emphasis on local decisionmaking, human capacity development, and collective action to generate productive aquaculture systems that fit into societal constraints and demands; (3) development of risk management efforts for all systems that reduce disease problems, eliminate antibiotic and drug abuse, and prevent exotic organism introduction into local waters; and (4) creation of systems to better identify more sustainably grown aquaculture products in the market and promote them to individual consumers. By 2050, seafood will be predominantly sourced through aquaculture, including not only finfish and invertebrates but also seaweeds.Keywords: Human capacity development, Best management practices, Responsible aquaculture, Integrated multitrophic aquaculture, Recirculating aquaculture system

A global review of problematic and pathogenic parasites of farmed tilapia

Over the past 80 years, tilapia have been translocated globally for aquaculture; active production is recorded in >124 countries. Of 7 million tonnes of tilapia produced in aquaculture, 79% is from 79 countries outside the natural range of tilapia. Capture fisheries account for a further 723,627 tonnes of tilapia, and >47% of this is landed from established invasive populations outside Africa. Tilapias host a rich fauna of parasites, many of which have been translocated with their hosts. This review summarises >2500 host–parasite records from 73+ countries and >820 recorded tilapia translocations (provided in the supplementary materials). This work focuses on the notable pathogens that threaten the health of cultured populations of tilapia, providing a description of their pathology and includes species that also have substantial impacts on wild tilapia populations, where relevant. For each major parasite taxonomic group, we highlight which parasites have been translocated or have been acquired from the new environments into which tilapia have been introduced, together with remarks on standard treatment approaches and research on them and their management and control. Regarding the theme ‘Tilapia health: quo vadis?’, Africa has enormous potential for aquaculture growth, but substantial knowledge gaps about tilapia parasites in many African states remain, which creates associated production and biosecurity risks. For each parasitic group, therefore, the risks of parasite translocation to new regions as tilapia aquaculture industries expand are highlighted

Bacterial diseases of tilapia, their zoonotic potential and risk of antimicrobial resistance

Tilapia culture is an important source of income and nutrition to many rural families. Since 2000, the production of tilapia increased and reached domestic and global markets. Major farmed species is Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), in earthen ponds and cage cultures. Intensification contributed to global tilapia disease outbreaks, with bacterial infections causing mortalities and morbidities, threatening sustainable production. At tilapia farms, high nutrient concentrations, water temperature and fish densities enhance bacterial growth including virulent bacterial clones and potential zoonotic bacteria. Global warming favours this. This review respectively provides a comprehensive overview of the most common and emerging bacterial pathogens, diseases, clinical presentations and diagnostics of tilapia, including bacteria and diseases with zoonotic potential. First, common bacterial disease outbreaks, including streptococcosis, motile Aeromonas septicaemia, francisellosis, columnaris disease and vibriosis are described. Then, information on emerging bacterial infections of concern for tilapia, like edwardsiellosis through Edwardsiella ictaluri and E. tarda, as well as Aeromonas schubertii is provided. Reports of infectious bacterial tilapia disease outbreaks from other bacteria, including Lactococcus garvieae, Aerococcus viridans, Pseudomonas spp., Mycobacterium marinum and Chlamydia spp., and others are reviewed. Furthermore, bacteria with zoonotic potential, like Streptococcus agalactiae ST283, S. iniae, Aeromonas sp., E. tarda, Vibrio vulnificus pathovar (pv) piscis and M. marinum are included in the review, to provide the most current overview of the disease risks affecting production and post-harvest stages. Additionally, the status and risks of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria from tilapia and other cultured fish through imprudent use of antibiotics, and its future at a global level are provided

Recent Asian initiatives under the NACA regional programme on aquatic animal health management

The activities of NACA in support of improving aquatic animal health management within Asia dates back since 1986 when it was first involved in the UNDP/FAO/ODA (and subsequently DFID) sponsored program on Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS). Consequently, in cooperation with relevant governments and institutions, NACA implemented a Regional Research Program on Ulcerative Syndrome in Fish and the Environment, from 1986 to 1989, which produced most of the scientific data on environmental parameters associated with EUS outbreaks in the Asia-Pacific region. Between 1989-1990, NACA and ADB implemented the Regional Study and Workshop on Fish Disease and Fish Health Management which revealed a scenario of environment-linked disease problems, product contamination, and environmental impacts on aquaculture, and for the first time losses suffered by Asian aquaculture from fish diseases were quantified. The study provided the first broad guidelines to regional and national strategies for developing capacities in fish health management. In 1991, OIE Tokyo approached NACA to initiate cooperation with respect to aquatic animal disease reporting which eventually led to an Expert Consultation on Aquatic Animal Disease Reporting in 1996. Between 1992 to 1996, NACA was involved in the following regional activities: (a) collaborating with IDRC and UPM in a Tropical Fish Health Management course, that ran for two intakes of students at UPM; (b) participating in the FAO 1994 Expert Consultation on Health Management held at UPM in Malaysia; and (c) the 1996 Consultation on Quarantine and Health Certification of FAO and AAHRI through the ODA-funded SEAADCP project. In l998, a joint publication - 'EUS Technical Handbook' with ACIAR, DFID, NSW Fisheries, AAHRI through SEAADCP and NACA - was completed. The major recommendations of the various regional meetings/consultations became the basis for the development of a strong multi-disciplinary Asia-Pacific regional programme on aquatic animal health management. At the request of Asian governments, NACA and FAO developed a Regional Technical Cooperation Programme on "Assistance for the Responsible Movement of Live Aquatic Animals" (FAO RTCP/RAS 6714 and 9605). The project was implemented from 1998 to 2001 in cooperation with 21 governments/territories in Asia-Pacific region, OIE FDC, OIE Tokyo, AFFA, AusAID/APEC and AAHRI. The programme and its outputs were developed through three years (1998 to 2001) of awareness raising and consensus building through various national and regional level activities (e.g. workshops, training courses, expert consultation, health assessments, etc.). This multidisciplinary Regional Aquatic Animal Health Management Programme has now been adopted by Asian governments (including NACA members and participating governments within ASEAN) as an important element of NACA's Third Five Year Work Programme (2001-2005). The current thrust of the programme is to assist countries in implementing the 'Technical Guidelines', giving special emphasis to the concept of "phased implementation based on national needs", including monitoring and evaluation of its implementation. One of the mechanisms to support Asian governments in the implementation of the 'Technical Guidelines' is through regional cooperation where effective partnership with relevant organizations will be continuously established and strengthened. Designated National Coordinators will continue to be the focal points for its implementation. A Regional Advisory Group on Aquatic Animal Health has been established which will function as an official regional expert group that will ensure the provision of expert advice to Asian governments in the implementation of the 'Technical Guidelines', with NACA providing institutional support and FAO and OIE providing technical guidance. The main elements for regional cooperation include: (a) Promoting effective cooperation through regional resource centers on aquatic animal health; (b) Harmonization of procedures for health certification, quarantine and diagnostics; (c) Support to capacity building; (d) Awareness raising, communication and information exchange on aquatic animal health; (e) Regional disease reporting; (f) Emergency response; and (g) Joint activities for risk reduction in shared watersheds.The paper also briefly include other health related projects jointly being developed and/ or currently carried out by NACA with other organizations (e.g. ACIAR, APEC, ASEAN, CSIRO, DANIDA, IDRC, MPEDA, MRC and SEAFDEC-AQD)

Emergency preparedness and contingency plans to aquatic animal disease emergencies

Emergency preparedness is the ability to respond effectively and in a timely fashion to aquatic animal disease emergencies (e.g. disease outbreaks, mass mortalities). It is a key element of a National Strategy on Aquatic Animal Health and an important consideration of the Progressive Management Pathway for improving Aquaculture Biosecurity. The important principles, requirements and elements and components of emergency prepareness and contingency plans are briefly described. The emergency preparedness response system audit is also presented as contingency planning arrangements that can provide useful insights and guidance in improving response action to disease emergencies. The paper concludes that many important lessons and insights learned from dealing with disease epizootics in the early 2000 remains valid after more than two decades when the aquaculture sector continues to be plagued with emerging diseases. Past lessons and more recent experiences demonstrated the value of rapid response, reporting/notification by competent authorities, continuous development of knowledge base and capacities in diagnostics, epidemiology, risk analysis, advanced financial planning and the important roles of governments and producer sectors in co-managing disease outbreak events as they both remain the critical entities responsible for launching rapid response. Skills and knowledge need to be passed on to locals as they are in the frontline of any disease emergency. Share key lessons from experiences by state and non-state actors (producer and academic sectors and other important players in the value chain), the international players that launch emergency responses, disease investigations and field situation assessments as well as financial entities that support these actions need to be continued. However, we also need to do - a stock taking exercise to evaluate what worked, what did not work, what resources are needed and to understand what are the new drivers for aquatic animal disease emergence in order to move forward with the right and timely response actions to disease emergencies in aquaculture. Key questions remain: Are we prepared for the next outbreak/mortality event? What are the minimum preparedness and advance preparedness actions needed

A survey of the parasites of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus (L.)) in the Philippines

Parasitological investigations, covering a period of 10 months were conducted on 600 Nile tilapia from fresh and brackishwater cultured and freshwater wild populations in the Philippines. From these examinations, 21 different species of parasites (10 Protozoa, 6 Monogenea, 3 Digenea, 1 Copepoda and 1 Mollusca) were recovered. Among these, 13 have been assigned specific identifications: Trichodina centrostrigata Basson, Van As and Paperna, 1983 T. acuta Lom, 1970 T. heterodentata Duncan, 1977 Tripartiella clavodonta Basson and Van As, 1987 T. tilapiae (Duncan, 1977) Cryptobia branchialis Nie in Chen, 1955 Enterogyrus cichlidarum Paperna, 1963 Cichlidogyrus tilapiae Paperna, 1960 C. tiberianus Paperna, 1960 C. sclerosus Paperna and Thurston, 1969 C. longicornis longicornis Paperna and Thurston, 1969 Transversotrema laruei Velasquez, 1958 and Caligus epidemicus Hewitt, 1971). One species (Trichodina n. sp.) is new to science. Four species are new geographical records for the Philippines (Trichodina n. sp., T. clavodonta and T. tilapiae, and E. cichlidarum) while three have not been previously recorded from Nile tilapia (Trichodina n. sp., T. clavodonta and T. tilapiae).Analyses were made on the changes in the parasite fauna of tilapia from fry to marketable size. Of all the parasite species for which age-count analyses could be conducted, five showed statistically significant changes in parasite counts with host age. These are T. laruei and C. epidemicus in brackishwater collections and Cichlidogyrus spp., E. cichlidarum and Unionidae gen sp. glochidia in fresh water.Observations are also made on the geographical distribution of these parasites in the Philippines and a preliminary assessment of the threat they may pose to the culture of tilapia is given based on a review of the literature