Multilingualism in later life: natural history and effects of language learning

The overarching aim of this thesis is to explore the question of what role the knowledge and use of multiple languages plays in ageing. To answer this question two approaches were taken: first a natural history perspective on how languages change across the lifespan; second a training strategy investigating the effects of language learning in later life. Chapter 1 reviews the state of the art in terms of language learning in the third age. Chapter 2 outlines various methodological considerations and contexts of the presented empirical studies. Chapter 3 presents two empirical studies of natural history: (a) a completed study where multilingual adults across the lifespan participated in an autobiographical experiment investigating the role of language in relation to the vividity and intensity of memories and (b) on-going study exploring reported changes in the language abilities in later life. These studies reveal a dynamic role of language across the lifespan of multilinguals and the inescapable importance of individual variation and contextualised differences. The natural history investigation is followed by language learning classes across the lifespan where participants learned (a) Spanish for 2 hours 3 times a week across 4 weeks (24 hours total; Chapter 5), (b) written and spoken Mandarin Chinese 2 hours 2 times a week for 8 weeks (32 hours total; Chapter 6), or (c) Scots for 2 hours, 3 times a week for 3 weeks (18 hours total; Chapter 7). Apart from different languages being chosen, each chapter investigates a related aspect of the language. That is, the three selected languages function as an illustration of three general questions. In Chapter 5, Spanish was selected as the target language due to being one of the most popular foreign languages in the United Kingdom, though not typically taught in schools as is the case with French or German. Therefore, participants entering the course were complete beginners, regardless of age. This chapter concentrates on the different ages of participants and the relationships between learning success (as measured by quizzes) and the cognitive effects of language learning. Chapter 6 explores the question of modality (auditory and visual) of language learning and cognitive measures, benefitting from the unique feature of Mandarin Chinese in which the written and spoken language are dissociated to a much larger degree than in other living languages. Chapter 7 examines the issue of how the social status of a language might influence the learning process using Scots, which is debated in some circles as being a dialect of English rather than a language. These language learning studies were designed and analysed using a mixed methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative data and analysis. In adopting a mixed methods approach to answering questions around the impact of language learning across the lifespan, the participant’s opinions and experiences as well as cognitive variables are taken into consideration, creating a wholistic picture representative of lived experiences. Lastly, two primarily qualitative studies are presented in Chapter 7. One completed study which explores online language learning with older adults and provides recommendations for improving learning experiences, and another which is still in progress. Following from the practicalities of online learning with students in the third age, preliminary results are presented from a focus group study which then informed an international online survey looking at the experience of mixed age adult language learning classroom dynamics and practicalities from the point of view of teachers as well as learners. It is my hope that this thesis will make a two-fold contribution: (1) via the empirical findings of the individual studies and (2) in terms of exploring the importance of different methodologies and methodical considerations in answering diverse research questions

Reporting in Experimental Philosophy: Current standards and recommendations for future practice

Recent replication crises in psychology and other fields have led to intense reflection about the validity of common research practices. Much of this reflection has focussed on reporting standards, and how they may be related to the questionable research practices that could underlie a high proportion of irreproducible findings in the published record. As a developing field, it is particularly important for Experimental Philosophy to avoid some of the pitfalls that have beset other disciplines. To this end, here we provide a detailed, comprehensive assessment of current reporting practices in Experimental Philosophy. We focus on the quality of statistical reporting and the disclosure of information about study methodology. We assess all the articles using quantitative methods (n=134) that were published over the years 2013-2016 in 29 leading philosophy journals. We find that null hypothesis significance testing is the prevalent statistical practice in Experimental Philosophy, although relying solely on this approach has been criticised in the psychological literature, and augmented by other approaches that Experimental Philosophy has adopted only partially: 53% of the papers report an effect size, 28% confidence intervals, 1% examined prospective statistical power and 5% report observed statistical power. Importantly, we find no direct relation between an article’s reporting quality and its impact (numbers of citations). We conclude with recommendations for authors, reviewers and editors in Experimental Philosophy, to facilitate making research statistically-transparent and reproducible

Language Learning for People Living with Dementia and Their Caregivers: Feasibility and the Quality of Experience

Background: A body of research from around the world has reported positive effects of bilingualism on cognitive ageing and dementia. However, little is known about whether foreign language learning could be applied as an intervention for people already living with dementia. Yet, before it is possible to determine the efficacy of language courses as an intervention for people living with dementia (PLWD), it is necessary to establish whether such an intervention is feasible. Our study explored this possibility. Methods: We conducted an exploratory study to examine the feasibility and tolerability of 2-week Italian beginner courses for PLWD in early stages and their family carers in two Scottish Dementia Resource Centres (DRCs). The courses were delivered by trained tutors from Lingo Flamingo, a social enterprise specialising in language teaching for older learners and learners with dementia. Twelve PLWD and seven carers participated in the study. Focus groups preceded and followed the courses. Additional post-course open interviews with the DRC managers were conducted, with a follow-up via telephone approximately one year later. Results: Qualitative content analysis resulted in 12 themes, 5 reflected in the interview schedule and 7 arising from the focus groups and interviews. Overall, the courses were perceived positively by PLWD, carers, and DRC managers, although a few logistically and linguistically challenging aspects were also mentioned. The courses were found to positively impact both the individual by increasing self-esteem and producing a sense of accomplishment as well as the group by creating a sense of community. Notably, no adverse effects (in particular no confusion or frustration) were reported. Conclusion: The positive outcomes of our study open a novel avenue for future research to explore foreign language training in dementia as an intervention and its implications.Validerad;2024;Nivå 2;2024-04-22 (hanlid);Funder: University of Edinburgh; AHRC Open WorldResearch Initiative (AH/N004671/1);Full text license: CC BY</p

Comparing face-to-face and online teaching of written and spoken Chinese to adult learners:An Edinburgh-Sheffield case study

We report a study comparing teaching written and spoken Chinese separately to adult learners without prior knowledge of Chinese in the traditional classroom setting and in the online format. The best way of introducing Chinese characters remains one of the major challenges in teaching Chinese as a foreign language: different methods have been used in practice and more empirical evidence is needed to identify their advantages and limitations. In a crossover design, we compared groups which received either four-week tuition in Chinese characters only (without teaching the sound or pinyin spelling) or the same period of tuition in spoken Chinese (without any writing, neither characters nor pinyin). After a two-week break, the groups were swapped, such that the writing class received tuition in spoken Chinese and vice versa. The first four-week block was delivered in the traditional classroom format, while the remaining tuition took place online, due to the Covid-19-related lockdown. The idea of teaching spoken and written Chinese entirely separately, although initially unfamiliar to teachers, proved to be feasible. The transition to online teaching worked well and brought not only challenges, but also new opportunities and advantages, particularly in the teaching of characters. Students’ experience of both parts of course (written and spoken) was overwhelmingly positive. However, while students who experienced classroom teaching first and then switched to online delivery perceived the online format as an unavoidable replacement, those who started the course online embraced it enthusiastically, accepting it as “the new normal” and focusing on its opportunities