Qualitative research methods in psychology

In the scientific community, and particularly in psychology and health, there has been an active and ongoing debate on the relative merits of adopting either quantitative or qualitative methods, especially when researching into human behaviour (Bowling, 2009; Oakley, 2000; Smith, 1995a, 1995b; Smith, 1998). In part, this debate formed a component of the development in the 1970s of our thinking about science. Andrew Pickering has described this movement as the "sociology of scientific knowledge" (SSK), where our scientific understanding, developing scientific ‘products’ and 'know-how', became identified as forming components in a wider engagement with society’s environmental and social context (Pickering, 1992: 1). Since that time, the debate has continued so that today there is an increasing acceptance of the use of qualitative methods in the social sciences (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Morse, 1994; Punch, 2011; Robson, 2011) and health sciences (Bowling, 2009; Greenhalgh & Hurwitz, 1998; Murphy & Dingwall, 1998). The utility of qualitative methods has also been recognised in psychology. As Nollaig Frost (2011) observes, authors such as Carla Willig and Wendy Stainton Rogers consider qualitative psychology is much more accepted today and that it has moved from "the margins to the mainstream in psychology in the UK." (Willig & Stainton Rogers, 2008: 8). Nevertheless, in psychology, qualitative methodologies are still considered to be relatively 'new' (Banister, Bunn, Burman, et al., 2011; Hayes, 1998; Richardson, 1996) despite clear evidence to the contrary (see, for example, the discussion on this point by Rapport et al., 2005). Nicki Hayes observes, scanning the content of some early journals from the 1920s – 1930s that many of these more historical papers "discuss personal experiences as freely as statistical data" (Hayes, 1998, 1). This can be viewed as an early development of the case-study approach, now an accepted methodological approach in psychological, health care and medical research, where our knowledge about people is enhanced by our understanding of the individual 'case' (May & Perry, 2011; Radley & Chamberlain, 2001; Ragin, 2011; Smith, 1998)

Research involving children : recent developments and current trends in thinking

Children today hold an important place in society and are valued for what they offer. They represent society’s hopes for the future. Children in the western world have rights today, but historically this has not always been the case. In the UK, children are protected by the Children Acts of 1989 and 2004, and by various other charters, guidelines and government policies concerning their health and welfare. Internationally, organisations such as UNICEF and Save the Children were set up to confer protection and oversee support to children as the most vulnerable group of a population in war or disaster zones (Greig et al, 2007). However, this happy state of affairs (the positive view) with regard to children is by no means universal. We need to be mindful that many children, both in the UK and further afield, still suffer the debilitating effects of poverty, hardship and hunger, they lack basic amenities such as water, sanitation and healthcare, or access to a basic education, and many are subject to violence, abuse and neglect

Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) : a qualitative methodology of choice in healthcare research

This paper focuses on the teaching of the qualitative method, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), to healthcare professionals (HCPs). It introduces briefly the philosophical background of IPA and how it has been used within healthcare research, and then discusses the teaching of IPA to HCPs within received educational theory. Lastly, the paper describes how IPA has been taught to students/trainees in some specific healthcare professions (clinical psychology, medicine, nursing and related disciplines). In doing this, the paper demonstrates the essential simplicity, paradoxical complexity, and methodological rigour that IPA can offer as a research tool in understanding healthcare and illness from the patient or service user perspective

Review : pearls of wisdom : using the single case study or ‘gem’ to identify strategies for mediating stress and work-life imbalance in healthcare staff

This paper […] reads well, offering a detailed exploration of one participant’s experiences of coping with stress, and the work-life balance, as a professional workingI read this paper with interest. It forms part of a larger qualitative study examining work-life balance among National Health Service (NHS) staff, through exploring a single case, Arial, using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). A strength of this paper is that it reads well, offering a detailed exploration of one participant’s experiences of coping with stress, and the work–life balance, as a professional working in today’s task-oriented NHS. in today’s task orientated NHS

Exam success at undergraduate and graduate-entry medical schools : is learning style or learning approach more important? : A critical review exploring links between academic success, learning styles, and learning approaches among school-leaver entry (“traditional”) and graduate-entry (“nontraditional”) medical students

Phenomenon: The literature on learning styles over many years has been replete with debate and disagreement. Researchers have yet to elucidate exactly which underlying constructs are measured by the many learning styles questionnaires available. Some academics question whether learning styles exist at all. When it comes to establishing the value of learning styles for medical students, a further issue emerges. The demographics of medical students in the United Kingdom have changed in recent years, so past studies may not be applicable to students today. We wanted to answer a very simple, practical question: what can the literature on learning styles tell us that we can use to help today's medical students succeed academically at medical school? Approach: We conducted a literature review to synthesise the available evidence on how two different aspects of learning—the way in which students like to receive information in a learning environment (termed learning “styles”) and the motivations that drive their learning (termed learning “approaches”)—can impact on medical students' academic achievement. Findings: Our review confirms that although learning “styles” do not correlate with exam performance, learning “approaches” do: those with “strategic” and “deep” approaches to learning (i.e., motivated to do well and motivated to learn deeply respectively) perform consistently better in medical school examinations. Changes in medical school entrant demographics in the past decade have not altered these correlations. Optimistically, our review reveals that students' learning approaches can change and more adaptive approaches may be learned. Insights: For educators wishing to help medical students succeed academically, current evidence demonstrates that helping students develop their own positive learning approach using “growth mind-set” is a more effective (and more feasible) than attempting to alter students' learning styles. This conclusion holds true for both “traditional” and graduate-entry medical students

Understanding the role of patient and public involvement in renal dietetic research

The objective was to consult patients on a proposed recruitment strategy to a patient and public involvement exercise. We wanted to explore the reasoning and willingness of patients to become co-researchers within a grant application. Eighteen people using the renal health service informed the consultation by action research so that their experiences could be used to guide the overall methodology. Twelve people took part in semi-structured interviews. NVIVO 10 and Framework Analysis were used to interpret emerging themes from the data. The recruitment strategy, informed by research expertise, became an experience-based expert design. The design took into account the limitations of attendance, the informational and physical needs of these service users. Service users wanted to share their experiences with people who would listen and were in a position to help make the changes. This gave them a sense of purpose and autonomy in their treatment and helped them cope with living with renal disease in society. However, feelings of doubt as to whether they could personally ‘make a difference’ as a co-researcher, were common. Consulting service users enabled the research team to recruit more people to interviews to explore motivation considering the unique personal and social needs of this service user group. Service users may need additional and continued support if they are to successfully take part in a clinical study research advisory group

Optimising the use of ICTs by health & social care professionals in the community

This research was commissioned as part of the Department of Health's Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Research Initiative, to identify ways in which ICTs might provide benefits to health and social care professionals working across boundaries and to the clients/ patients that they serve. The project aimed to examine the use of existing ICTs in supporting isolated users in the community (principally professionals but also lay users), and to consider ways in which use of such ICTs might be improved, focusing initially on non-person identifiable information. A single patient group was selected as the main focus of the study - older people (and their carers). This group was chosen because the needs of older people and their carers reflect those of the wider isolated populations served by health and social welfare professionals in terms of their clinical, psychological and social care needs. Other isolated groups might include the physically disabled, the mentally ill, or those socially and potentially service isolated through geography, lifestyles or other factors. Older people would be represented in all these categories. Therefore, a study focusing on the information needs of professionals who support older patients or clients should provide findings that are generalisable to other groups, such as those mentioned above. Furthermore, it was evident that this is an important group on which to focus in terms of inter-agency working because of the various policy initiatives that aim to enhance working between professionals across the health and social care interface in relation to older people

A phenomenological exploration of parenting after birth trauma : mothers’ perceptions of the first year

Problem While perinatal mental health issues are considered to have an impact on a mother’s parenting capacity, there is limited research exploring mothers’ perceptions of their relationship with their child following traumatic birth experiences and how these might affect their parenting capacity. Background Birth trauma is a well-recognised phenomenon which may result in ongoing physical and perinatal mental health difficulties for women. This may impact on their attachment to their children, their parenting capabilities, and their self-identity as mothers. Aims To explore maternal self-perceptions of bonding with their infants and parenting experiences following birth trauma. Methods In-depth interviews with ten mothers were undertaken using an Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis methodology. Findings Women who experienced birth trauma often described disconnection to their infants and lacking confidence in their parental decision making. Many perceived themselves as being ‘not good enough’ mothers. For some women the trauma resulted in memory gaps of the immediate post-partum period which they found distressing, or physical recovery was so overwhelming that it impacted their capabilities to parent the way they had imagined they would. Some women developed health anxiety which resulted in an isolating experience of early parenthood. Conclusions Women who have suffered birth trauma may be at risk of increased fear and anxiety around their child’s health and their parenting abilities. Some women may experience this as feeling a lower emotional attachment to their infant. Women who experience birth trauma should be offered support during early parenting. Mother-Infant relationships often improve after the first year