Trends and prospects for the productivity and sustainability of home garden systems in southern Ethiopia

Increasing population pressure and market developments are major drivers of change in land use and rural livelihoods. Home gardens are characterized by multipurpose trees and shrubs in intimate association with annual and perennial crops and livestock around the homestead which support the livelihoods of more than 15 million people in southern Ethiopia. The aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of how changes in home garden systems impact on agricultural sustainability. First, we studied dynamics in the cropping pattern and livestock population over the past two decades (1991-2013). To understand the diversity of home garden systems, farms were grouped into five types: Khat-based, Enset-cereal-vegetable, Enset-based, Enset-coffee and Enset-livestock based on the area share of crops and grazing land. Farm trajectories revealed a shift from the traditional Enset-based, Enset-coffee and Enset-livestock systems to 1) cash crop-oriented Khat-based systems in densely populated, market-proximate areas, and 2) combined food and cash crop-oriented Enset-cereal-vegetable systems in less populated and less accessible areas. Over the last two decades the area under khat (Catha edulis Forsk) expanded from 6% to 35% of the farm area, whereas the share of farm area devoted to both enset (Enset ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman) and coffee (Coffea arabica L.) decreased from 45% to 25% in densely populated market-proximate areas. Meanwhile, in medium-populated, less accessible areas, enset and coffee together maintained a share of over 45% per farm, but cereals and vegetables gained in importance. Given the difficulty in quantifying the productivity of perennial crops, we used allometric relations to estimate the edible and commercial yield of both enset and khat plants. As home gardens produce several crops with a distinct purpose (e.g. food, feed, cash generation), the farm level productivity was expressed in three ways, in terms of annual crop yield, human edible energy yield and revenue. The lowest farm level crop productivity was attained in the traditional Enset-coffee systems (1820 kg DM ha-1), whereas the highest in the newly evolved Enset-cereal-vegetable systems (3020 DM kg ha-1). Energy productivity from food crops was higher in Enset-based systems (43 GJ ha-1) than in other systems whereas annual revenue was lowest in Enset-based systems (719 US$ha-1) and highest in newly evolved Khat-based systems (6817 US$ ha-1). Introducing the high value cash crop khat and annual cereals in traditional home garden systems enabled smallholders to maintain food security and dietary diversity without jeopardizing plant species richness. Contrary to common claims, there was no positive effect of plant species richness on total crop and energy productivity, except for the positive effect on revenue in enset-oriented systems. The farm level gross margin attained in Khat-based systems was 4, 4, 2, and 2 times larger than in Enset-cereal-vegetable, Enset-based, Enset-coffee and Enset-livestock systems respectively. However, the shift away from enset and coffee, which received only organic fertilizer, to khat, which received solely inorganic fertilizer, led to a decline in N, P and K stocks by 20%, 70% and 30% respectively. As the profitability of khat cannot be matched by any other crop at current market prices, abolishment of khat cultivation is not an option for the small farms, as that would jeopardize their livelihood. One option for improvement is intercropping khat with food crops, such as maize and beans. With population density expected to continually increase in the region, more improvement options tailored to the specific systems are required for sustainable development of home garden systems.</p

Home garden system dynamics in Southern Ethiopia

Home gardens in southern Ethiopia are regarded as efficient farming systems, allowing interactions and synergies between crop, tree and livestock components. However, these age-old traditional home gardens are evolving rapidly in response to changes in both the socio-economic and biophysical environment. Altered cropping patterns, farm size and component interactions may affect the systems’ sustainability. Home gardens exhibit a huge diversity in farms and farming systems, which needs to be understood in order to design interventions for improvement. Dynamics of home gardens were studied over two-decades (1991–2013) based on a survey of 240 farm households and focus group discussions. Farms were grouped into five types: Khat-based, Enset-cereal-vegetable, Enset-based, Enset-coffee and Enset-livestock. Farm trajectories revealed a shift from food-oriented Enset-based and Enset-livestock systems to (1) cash crop oriented khat-based systems, and (2) combined food and cash crop oriented Enset-cereal-vegetable systems. In densely populated, market proximate areas a major trend was expansion of khat, from 6 to 35% of the area share per farm, while the combined area share of enset and coffee decreased from 45 to 25%. Concurrently, the cattle herd size fell from 5.8 TLU to 3.9 TLU per household. In medium populated, less accessible areas the trend was consolidation of combined production of food and cash crops. Enset and coffee together maintained a share of over 45%. Easy transport and marketing of the perishable cash-generating khat compared with traditional crops favoured its cultivation among smallholders located close to markets. The insights in home garden change in response to increasing population pressure, decreasing farm size and market development may help to design interventions to increase system sustainability

Home garden system dynamics in Southern Ethiopia

Home gardens in southern Ethiopia are regarded as efficient farming systems, allowing interactions and synergies between crop, tree and livestock components. However, these age-old traditional home gardens are evolving rapidly in response to changes in both the socio-economic and biophysical environment. Altered cropping patterns, farm size and component interactions may affect the systems’ sustainability. Home gardens exhibit a huge diversity in farms and farming systems, which needs to be understood in order to design interventions for improvement. Dynamics of home gardens were studied over two-decades (1991–2013) based on a survey of 240 farm households and focus group discussions. Farms were grouped into five types: Khat-based, Enset-cereal-vegetable, Enset-based, Enset-coffee and Enset-livestock. Farm trajectories revealed a shift from food-oriented Enset-based and Enset-livestock systems to (1) cash crop oriented khat-based systems, and (2) combined food and cash crop oriented Enset-cereal-vegetable systems. In densely populated, market proximate areas a major trend was expansion of khat, from 6 to 35% of the area share per farm, while the combined area share of enset and coffee decreased from 45 to 25%. Concurrently, the cattle herd size fell from 5.8 TLU to 3.9 TLU per household. In medium populated, less accessible areas the trend was consolidation of combined production of food and cash crops. Enset and coffee together maintained a share of over 45%. Easy transport and marketing of the perishable cash-generating khat compared with traditional crops favoured its cultivation among smallholders located close to markets. The insights in home garden change in response to increasing population pressure, decreasing farm size and market development may help to design interventions to increase system sustainability

Are traditional home gardens in southern Ethiopia heading for extinction? Implications for productivity, plant species richness and food security

While home garden systems are acknowledged for their capacity of supporting a very dense population, the productivity of these systems and their contribution to food security and dietary diversity are poorly quantified. Although several articles document the decrease in species richness in home gardens due to processes of modernization, relatively little attention has been given to how the change in diversity impacted productivity. Five predominant home garden systems identified in a previous study were intensively monitored during 12 months within four districts of Sidama and Gedeo zones of southern Ethiopia. Data from 24 farms were collected on plant species, soil characteristics, crop inputs, field sizes and crop yields and livestock production. The productivity of enset for both food and feed was lowest in Enset-coffee home gardens. Barley and khat yielded significantly more per ha in Khat-based systems than in other ones. Maize and coffee productivity did not differ significantly between home garden types. Overall crop productivity was lowest in the traditional Enset-coffee systems (1820 kg DM ha−1) and highest in the newly evolved Enset-cereal-vegetable systems (3020 DM kg ha−1). Energy productivity from food crops was higher in Enset-based systems (43 GJ ha−1) than in other systems whereas revenue was lowest in Enset-based systems (719 US$ha−1) and highest in newly evolved Khat-based systems (6817 US$ ha−1). The rate of N application through compost explained 30% of the variability in kocho standing biomass. The rate of N application in inorganic fertilizer explained 43% and 25% of the variability in khat and barley yield respectively. There was no positive effect of plant species richness on total crop and energy productivity except for the revenue in enset-oriented systems. Khat-based and Enset-cereal-vegetable systems were more food secure than the traditional home gardens, and these newly evolved systems also did not lead to a loss in plant species richness. The modification of traditional home garden systems by introducing the high value cash crop khat and annual cereals in response to farmland constraints and market opportunities enabled smallholders to maintain food security and dietary diversity without jeopardizing plant species richness. With population density expected to continually increase in the region, improvement options tailored to the specific systems are required for sustainable development

Are traditional home gardens in southern Ethiopia heading for extinction? Implications for productivity, plant species richness and food security

While home garden systems are acknowledged for their capacity of supporting a very dense population, the productivity of these systems and their contribution to food security and dietary diversity are poorly quantified. Although several articles document the decrease in species richness in home gardens due to processes of modernization, relatively little attention has been given to how the change in diversity impacted productivity. Five predominant home garden systems identified in a previous study were intensively monitored during 12 months within four districts of Sidama and Gedeo zones of southern Ethiopia. Data from 24 farms were collected on plant species, soil characteristics, crop inputs, field sizes and crop yields and livestock production. The productivity of enset for both food and feed was lowest in Enset-coffee home gardens. Barley and khat yielded significantly more per ha in Khat-based systems than in other ones. Maize and coffee productivity did not differ significantly between home garden types. Overall crop productivity was lowest in the traditional Enset-coffee systems (1820 kg DM ha−1) and highest in the newly evolved Enset-cereal-vegetable systems (3020 DM kg ha−1). Energy productivity from food crops was higher in Enset-based systems (43 GJ ha−1) than in other systems whereas revenue was lowest in Enset-based systems (719 US$ha−1) and highest in newly evolved Khat-based systems (6817 US$ ha−1). The rate of N application through compost explained 30% of the variability in kocho standing biomass. The rate of N application in inorganic fertilizer explained 43% and 25% of the variability in khat and barley yield respectively. There was no positive effect of plant species richness on total crop and energy productivity except for the revenue in enset-oriented systems. Khat-based and Enset-cereal-vegetable systems were more food secure than the traditional home gardens, and these newly evolved systems also did not lead to a loss in plant species richness. The modification of traditional home garden systems by introducing the high value cash crop khat and annual cereals in response to farmland constraints and market opportunities enabled smallholders to maintain food security and dietary diversity without jeopardizing plant species richness. With population density expected to continually increase in the region, improvement options tailored to the specific systems are required for sustainable development

Living income benchmarking of rural households in low-income countries

The extreme poverty line is the most commonly used benchmark for poverty, set at US$1.90 by the World Bank. Another benchmark, based on the Anker living wage methodology, is the remuneration received for a standard work week necessary for a worker to meet his/her family’s basic needs in a particular place. The living wage concept has been used extensively to address incomes of plantation workers producing agricultural commodities for international markets. More recently intense discussion has emerged concerning the ‘living income’ of smallholder farmers who produce commodities for international supply chains on their own land. In this article we propose a simple method that can be used in all types of development projects to benchmark a rural ‘living income’. We launch the Living Income Methodology, as adapted from the Living Wage Methodology, to estimate the living income for rural households. In any given location this requires about one week of fieldwork. We express it per adult equivalent per day (AE/day) and data collection is focused on rural households and their immediate surroundings. Our three case studies showed that in 2017 in Lushoto District, rural Tanzania, the living income was US$ PPP 4.04/AE/day, in Isingiro District, rural Uganda, 3.82 and in Sidama Zone, rural Ethiopia, 3.60. In all cases, the extreme poverty line of US$ PPP 1.90 per capita per day is insufficient to meet the basic human rights for a decent living in low-income countries. The Living Income Methodology provides a transparent local benchmark that can be used to assess development opportunities of rural households, by employers in rural areas, including farmers hiring in labour, while respecting basic human rights on a decent living. It can be used to reflect on progress of rural households in low-income countries on their aspired path out of poverty. It further provides a meaningful benchmark to measure progress on Sustainable Development Goal 1, eliminating poverty, and 2, zero hunger and sustainable food systems, allowing for consideration of the local context