Social Control in Applied Social Science: A Study of Evaluative Researchers\u27 Conformity to Technical Norms

This paper is a preliminary exploration of the relationship between social factors, and conformity to a set of prescribed methodological norms in applied social science. Focusing our attention on evaluative research, we seek to estimate how variation in type and nature of research sponsorship, research context, and researcher relationship with sponsor and host affect reported conformity to methodological prescriptions. Analyzing the self-reported responses of 152 evaluative researchers to a mail questionnaire, we find: (a) that conformity to methodological prescriptions is very variable among evaluative researchers: (b) that the social factors here examined seem to affect systematically the degree of conformity; (c) that while no single social factor has a large net effect on conformity, simultaneously occurring values seem more conducive to conformity, i.e., characteristics associated with our “academic model” are correlated with reported higher conformity, whereas characteristics associated with our “entrepreneurial model” are correlated with reported lower conformity. Our findings suggest that, while traditional social control mechanisms increase the likelihood of adherence to methodological prescriptions for those whose work fits or resembles the “academic model,” when the model of work moves toward the “entrepreneurial” type, reported conformity decreases with the absence of those traditional mechanisms of social control. Insofar as the “entrepreneurial model” is increasingly becoming the predominant work model in applied social science, our findings suggest that future research should seek to explain variation in conformity among the “entrepreneurs” and to explore the variety of means by which to increase conformity within this model

Social Control in Applied Social Science: A Study of Evaluative Researchers\u27 Conformity to Technical Norms

This paper is a preliminary exploration of the relationship between social factors, and conformity to a set of prescribed methodological norms in applied social science. Focusing our attention on evaluative research, we seek to estimate how variation in type and nature of research sponsorship, research context, and researcher relationship with sponsor and host affect reported conformity to methodological prescriptions. Analyzing the self-reported responses of 152 evaluative researchers to a mail questionnaire, we find: (a) that conformity to methodological prescriptions is very variable among evaluative researchers: (b) that the social factors here examined seem to affect systematically the degree of conformity; (c) that while no single social factor has a large net effect on conformity, simultaneously occurring values seem more conducive to conformity, i.e., characteristics associated with our “academic model” are correlated with reported higher conformity, whereas characteristics associated with our “entrepreneurial model” are correlated with reported lower conformity. Our findings suggest that, while traditional social control mechanisms increase the likelihood of adherence to methodological prescriptions for those whose work fits or resembles the “academic model,” when the model of work moves toward the “entrepreneurial” type, reported conformity decreases with the absence of those traditional mechanisms of social control. Insofar as the “entrepreneurial model” is increasingly becoming the predominant work model in applied social science, our findings suggest that future research should seek to explain variation in conformity among the “entrepreneurs” and to explore the variety of means by which to increase conformity within this model

Conflict in Context: The Sanctioning of Draft Resisters, 1963-76

In this paper we examine the sanctioning of one type of political deviance, draft resistance, in two different social and political contexts: an era of coercive control and a period of cooptive control. A focus on the sanctioning of draft resisters allows a unique opportunity to examine the societal response to what the New Criminologists (Taylor et al., 1973:267) describe as the purposive creator and innovator of action whose crimes are the product of . . . individual or collective action taken to Resolve... inequalities of power and interest. Our data cover a fourteen year period and consist of information obtained through a content analysis of newspaper articles and editorials on draft resistance and reform activities, and of information on defendants and dispositions from the records of the Federal District Court of an American city. Our principal interest is in isolating criteria (e.g., race and type of resistance) guiding the application of sanctions in the two periods. Our findings indicate that these criteria vary in their influence by context, and that a conflict theory of deviance and control will therefore benefit by taking social and political context into account

The Sentence Bargaining of Upperworld and Underworld Crime in Ten Federal District Courts

This paper explores the use of different types of sentence bargaining tactics in ten federal district courts. We distinguish between proactive and reactive prosecutorial orientation, and hypothesize that proactive prosecution of upperworld crime is associated with more explicit sentence bargaining than is the reactive prosecution of underworld crime. We present evidence for and explanations of this relationship

The Sentence Bargaining of Upperworld and Underworld Crime in Ten Federal District Courts

This paper explores the use of different types of sentence bargaining tactics in ten federal district courts. We distinguish between proactive and reactive prosecutorial orientation, and hypothesize that proactive prosecution of upperworld crime is associated with more explicit sentence bargaining than is the reactive prosecution of underworld crime. We present evidence for and explanations of this relationship

Conflict in Context: The Sanctioning of Draft Resisters, 1963-76

In this paper we examine the sanctioning of one type of political deviance, draft resistance, in two different social and political contexts: an era of coercive control and a period of cooptive control. A focus on the sanctioning of draft resisters allows a unique opportunity to examine the societal response to what the New Criminologists (Taylor et al., 1973:267) describe as the purposive creator and innovator of action whose crimes are the product of . . . individual or collective action taken to Resolve... inequalities of power and interest. Our data cover a fourteen year period and consist of information obtained through a content analysis of newspaper articles and editorials on draft resistance and reform activities, and of information on defendants and dispositions from the records of the Federal District Court of an American city. Our principal interest is in isolating criteria (e.g., race and type of resistance) guiding the application of sanctions in the two periods. Our findings indicate that these criteria vary in their influence by context, and that a conflict theory of deviance and control will therefore benefit by taking social and political context into account

The Differential Sentencing of White-Collar Offenders in Ten Federal District Courts

While sociologist have long debated the relationship between the status characteristics of criminal offenders and the sentences they receive, they have done so with data sets drawn from state courts whose prosecutorial resources are focused almost entirely on low status defendants. Qualitative and quantitative data analyzed in this paper are drawn from ten federal district courts whose statutes and resources provide greater potential for the prosecution of the white-collar crimes of higher status offenders. Three questions are addressed: (1) Are there substantial jurisdictional differences in the prosecution of white-collar cases? if so, (2) Are there corresponding jurisdictional differences in the sentencing of white-collar cases? and (3) Within jurisdictions, are there further differences in the factors that influence sentencing decisions in white-collar as compared to other kinds of cases? The data are analyzed from a perspective that emphasizes organizational considerations: we conceptualize the criminal justice process as a loosely coupled system and the use of prosecutorial resources as proactive and reactive. We argue that the expanded prosecution of white-collar persons for their white-collar crimes requires a proactive prosecutorial policy and a tightening of the coupling between plea negotiations and sentencing decisions in the prosecutorial and judicial subsystems. Our quantitative analysis reveals that one district follows a uniquely proactive pattern. As expected, this proactive district also exhibits a unique leniency in the sentencing of college educated white-collar criminals that is related to earlier plea and charging decisions. A rather different and unanticipated pattern of leniency is found in this district for less educated white-collar offenders. A conclusion of this study is that there may be an inverse relationship between the volume of white-collar prosecutions and the severity with which they are sentenced

Housewives\u27 Self-Esteem and their Husbands\u27 Success: The Myth of Vicarious Involvement

This study tests the common assertion that women, especially upper middle-class housewives, vicariously experience their husbands’ success. Our findings for 121 mostly upper middle-class housewives disprove this assertion. Husbands’ success does positively affect a housewife’s self-esteem, but only indirectly, through its effect on perceived marital success. Only husband’s income has a direct positive effect on self-esteem, while other successes of the husband actually lower her self-esteem. These findings, made more dramatic by a comparison with professional married women for whom none of the above effects appear, demonstrate the ambiguous impact traditional marriage has on women. Since marriage is traditionally a basis for a woman’s identity, successful marriage increases her feelings of worth. However, the specific role arrangement may reduce her feelings of personal competence