Pigeon-Frequented Areas, Garbage Piles and Dog Faeces as Possible Sources of Candida and Cryptococcus Infections for Humans and Animals

A study was carried out to establish the presence of Cryptococcus neoformans and Candida species in two pigeon-frequented areas; garbage piles from two separate sites in Nairobi, and dog faeces from Small animal clinic, University of Nairobi, Kabete. The sampling included both solid materials and air. Potato Dextrose agar, CHROMagar and urea media were used for isolation and characterization of these yeasts. Various species of Candidaand Cryptococcus neoformans were isolated in numbers ranging from 104 to 105 colony forming units per gramme or per 2-minute exposure to air; from both pigeon-frequented areas and garbage sites. Cryptococcus was isolated more than Candida species in pigeon-frequented areas, while the reverse was the case for garbage sites, both for solid and aerial samples. The dog faeces yielded Candida organisms mainly. The presence of these yeasts in both solid samples and air highlights the possibility of these areas, which are frequently traversed by humans and animals (including chickens and other birds), as being possible sources of infection for humans and animals. Aerial contamination means the organisms can be disseminated far and wide easily. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 18-2

Isolation of Enterotoxigenic E. coli from Food-Handlers in Selected Tourist - Class Hotels in Nairobi

A total of 3866 stool samples from food-handlers from tourist hotels in Nairobi were screened for the presence of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). This was done using the “salting out” (hydrophobicity) technique. Results showed an ETEC carriage of 3.4% among the tested hotel food-handlers. This is significant in the sense that it requires only one carrier to infect several people who eat/drink the contaminated food/drink. Thus, hygiene needs to be exercised all the time, otherwise the infected workers could easily pass-on the infection through food/drink contamination. Workers also need to be scanned regularly and those found infected kept from handling foods/drinks in hotels and other food/drink places. Some of these isolates exhibited multi-drug resistances, a characteristic which would worsen the situation for those infected, making treatment difficult. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 14-1

Comparative Evaluation of Five Widal Test Kits Used in Kenya for the Serological Diagnosis of Typhoid Fever

Typhoid fever, caused by Salmonella typhi (S. typhi), is currently one of the most serious human diseases in Kenya, sometimes occurring in epidemic proportions, particularly in schools. It is essentially an enteric disease, which frequently becomes septicemic and if left untreated can cause death in 10-20% of the infected population. The disease is usually diagnosed by two methods: (1) isolation of the causative bacterium from suitable samples such as blood during the first week of illness and rose spots on the skin, feces and urine during the second to third week of illness, and (2) serologically by demonstrating a four-fold or greater rise in agglutinins to the ‘O' antigen of S typhi in patients, using a standardized, stained S. typhi antigen, in a test commonly referred to as the ‘Widal test'. In Kenya, there are a number of commercial Widal test kits currently in use. However, there is no documentation on their respective sensitivity and specificity in the diagnosis of typhoid fever. This study was therefore designed to compare sensitivity and specificity of the various Widal test kits in the detection of an active typhoid fever infection. This study compared five Widal test kits, using antisera against S typhi and S. typhimurium ‘O' and ‘H' antigens, experimentally produced in rabbits over a four-week period. S. typhimurium antiserum was used to check for the specificity of the Widal test kits for S. typhi agglutinins as well as cross reactivity with agglutinins against other Salmonella serotypes. All the five Widal test kits used in this study showed 100% sensitivity to S. typhi agglutinins, and Widal test kit E was distinctly more sensitive than the other 4, as it was associated with higher titres. The ‘O' antibody titres displayed by all the test kits were significantly less than the ‘H' antibody titres throughout the experimental period. Two test kits, D and E, picked ‘O' and ‘H' antibody titres greater than the standard cut-off titre of 1:160, whereas three test kits, A, B and C, picked the standard cut-off titre at one week post inoculation with respective S. typhi antigens. However, all test kits picked antibody titres greater than the standard cut-off titre at 2 weeks post inoculation, and at 4 weeks post inoculation, all kits picked an antibody titre greater than 1:2560. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 94-9

Hatchability and fertility of indigenous chicken and duck eggs, and some causes of chick and duckling mortality in Kenya

Flocks under study are located in the suburbs of Nairobi province and Machakos district. They belonged to smallholder farmers. Twenty seven clutches of eggs given to indigenous chickens to seat on, and 10 clutches of eggs given to ducks to seat on were investigated for six months. The number of eggs in each clutch ranged from 6 to 19 with an average of12 eggs. Duck eggs had a hatchability of 82.3% and fertility of 89.5% while chicken eggs had a hatchability of 66.2% and fertility of 82.8%. Staphylococcus spp, Streptococcus spp., Enterococcus spp., Escherichia coli, Proteus spp., and other aerobic bacteria were commonly isolated from un-hatched eggs, dead embryos, dead chicks, and ducklings. These were comparable with bacterial isolates recovered from cloacal and pharyngeo-tracheal swabs taken from adult birds from these farms and cultured on blood and McConkey Agar base. The main causes of chick and duckling mortalities were yolk sac infections, colibacillosis, and nutritional deficiencies. Other causes of mortality encountered were ectoparasites {fleas (Echidnophaga gallinacea) and lice (Menopon gallinae)}; and predators like kites, hawks, mongoose, dogs, wild and domestic cats. Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 31 (1) 2007: pp. 6-1

Comparison Between Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH) and Culture Method in the Detection of Pasteurella multocida in Organs of Indigenous Birds

A total of forty-eight indigenous birds were intratracheally infected with Pasteurella multocida, paired and sacrificed at specified times. Seven organs from each of the four pairs were swabbed for culture and tissues taken for FISH test to detect the presence of the bacterium in these birds. Oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected, for culture method and bacteria characterized by biochemical tests. While for FISH test, tissues were processed for histology after fixation in formalin for 24 hours and later preserved in 70% alcohol before in situ hybridization test. At any sacrificial time between 1hour and 14 days post inoculation P. multocida FISH signals were observed in 47 to 75% while the bacterium was isolated on culture in 7 to 50% of the organs of the indigenous birds. During the same period four (lung, trachea/oropharynx, liver and spleen) organs on FISH test and one (trachea/oropharynx) on culture were throughout positive for P. multocida. The large intestine/cloaca and pruning gland showed P. multocida FISH signals at various times but were negative for the bacterium on culture. Both tests were positive for P. multocida immediately after inoculation. FISH signals were found in a decreasing manner in the lung, trachea/oropharynx, liver, spleen, caecal tonsils, large intestine/cloaca, and pruning gland. On culture, the bacteria were found in a decreasing manner in the trachea/oropharynx, lung, spleen, liver and caecal tonsils. Most cultured isolates were made between 1 - 24 hours, few and intermittent ones thereafter, and none at all after the 10th day post infection. These results show that FISH test is more sensitive than the culture method for detection of P. multocida in tissues of infected birds. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 53-5

Preliminary Findings on the Carrier Status of Pasteurella multocida in Farmed and Traded Healthy-appearing Scavenging Indigenous Chickens and Ducks in Kenya

One hundred and twenty three indigenous chickens and 24 ducks reared under free range scavenging system were examined for the carrier status of Pasteurella multocida. Both the oropharynyngeal and cloacal swab samples were examined for the presence of the organisms by means of mouse passage and inoculation into blood agar. Of these, 53 chickens and 24 ducks were from different smallholder farms in Nairobi, and Machakos districts, 41 chickens were from various slaughterhouses in Nairobi, while 29 were market chickens obtained from various market centers in Nairobi. The traded (market and slaughter) chickens all originated from rural districts in various parts of the country. From the 123 chickens examined, Pasteurella multocida subspecies were isolated only from four birds. The isolates were recovered from the traded chickens only. Pasteurella organisms were not from any of the 24 ducks. On the basis of biochemical characterization, the organisms were differentiated as P. multocida multocida (1/4), P. multocida septica (1/4) and P. multocida gallicida (2/4). This study suggests that healthy traded poultry could be carriers of Pasteurella multocida. It describes the first report of Pasteurella multocida isolation from indigenous birds in Kenya. Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 31 (1) 2007: pp. 1-

Comparison of the Carrier Status of P. multocida Between Farm and Live Market Indigenous Birds

A total of one hundred and seventy one indigenous birds from smallholder farms and those traded in market centers in Nairobi were examined for the presence of Pasteurella multocida. Of these, 135 were farmed and 36 were market birds. They comprised of 117 indigenous chickens and 54 ducks. Three hundred and forty two oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected from them and cultured onto blood agar and other media. The recovered isolates were characterized using colonial morphology, biochemical and other tests. Twenty three P. multocida isolates were recovered: 11/135 (8%) from farm and 12/36 (33%) from the market birds. Majority of the P. multocida isolates were Pasteurella multocida gallicida 11/23 (48%), followed by Pasteurella multocida multocida 7/23 (30%) and Pasteurella multocida septica 5/23 (22%). Pasteurella multocida gallicida isolates were encountered more in the market birds, while Pasteurella multocida multocida isolates were more in farm birds. Ducks had more isolates than chickens. The concentration of the birds at market areas appeared to favor the maintenance of P. multocida in the cages, crates and pens. Market birds may, therefore, play a major role in the spreading of P. multocida. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 45-4