Pigeon-Frequented Areas, Garbage Piles and Dog Faeces as Possible Sources of Candida and Cryptococcus Infections for Humans and Animals

A study was carried out to establish the presence of Cryptococcus neoformans and Candida species in two pigeon-frequented areas; garbage piles from two separate sites in Nairobi, and dog faeces from Small animal clinic, University of Nairobi, Kabete. The sampling included both solid materials and air. Potato Dextrose agar, CHROMagar and urea media were used for isolation and characterization of these yeasts. Various species of Candidaand Cryptococcus neoformans were isolated in numbers ranging from 104 to 105 colony forming units per gramme or per 2-minute exposure to air; from both pigeon-frequented areas and garbage sites. Cryptococcus was isolated more than Candida species in pigeon-frequented areas, while the reverse was the case for garbage sites, both for solid and aerial samples. The dog faeces yielded Candida organisms mainly. The presence of these yeasts in both solid samples and air highlights the possibility of these areas, which are frequently traversed by humans and animals (including chickens and other birds), as being possible sources of infection for humans and animals. Aerial contamination means the organisms can be disseminated far and wide easily. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 18-2

Isolation of Enterotoxigenic E. coli from Food-Handlers in Selected Tourist - Class Hotels in Nairobi

A total of 3866 stool samples from food-handlers from tourist hotels in Nairobi were screened for the presence of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). This was done using the “salting out” (hydrophobicity) technique. Results showed an ETEC carriage of 3.4% among the tested hotel food-handlers. This is significant in the sense that it requires only one carrier to infect several people who eat/drink the contaminated food/drink. Thus, hygiene needs to be exercised all the time, otherwise the infected workers could easily pass-on the infection through food/drink contamination. Workers also need to be scanned regularly and those found infected kept from handling foods/drinks in hotels and other food/drink places. Some of these isolates exhibited multi-drug resistances, a characteristic which would worsen the situation for those infected, making treatment difficult. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 14-1

Comparative Evaluation of Five Widal Test Kits Used in Kenya for the Serological Diagnosis of Typhoid Fever

Typhoid fever, caused by Salmonella typhi (S. typhi), is currently one of the most serious human diseases in Kenya, sometimes occurring in epidemic proportions, particularly in schools. It is essentially an enteric disease, which frequently becomes septicemic and if left untreated can cause death in 10-20% of the infected population. The disease is usually diagnosed by two methods: (1) isolation of the causative bacterium from suitable samples such as blood during the first week of illness and rose spots on the skin, feces and urine during the second to third week of illness, and (2) serologically by demonstrating a four-fold or greater rise in agglutinins to the ‘O' antigen of S typhi in patients, using a standardized, stained S. typhi antigen, in a test commonly referred to as the ‘Widal test'. In Kenya, there are a number of commercial Widal test kits currently in use. However, there is no documentation on their respective sensitivity and specificity in the diagnosis of typhoid fever. This study was therefore designed to compare sensitivity and specificity of the various Widal test kits in the detection of an active typhoid fever infection. This study compared five Widal test kits, using antisera against S typhi and S. typhimurium ‘O' and ‘H' antigens, experimentally produced in rabbits over a four-week period. S. typhimurium antiserum was used to check for the specificity of the Widal test kits for S. typhi agglutinins as well as cross reactivity with agglutinins against other Salmonella serotypes. All the five Widal test kits used in this study showed 100% sensitivity to S. typhi agglutinins, and Widal test kit E was distinctly more sensitive than the other 4, as it was associated with higher titres. The ‘O' antibody titres displayed by all the test kits were significantly less than the ‘H' antibody titres throughout the experimental period. Two test kits, D and E, picked ‘O' and ‘H' antibody titres greater than the standard cut-off titre of 1:160, whereas three test kits, A, B and C, picked the standard cut-off titre at one week post inoculation with respective S. typhi antigens. However, all test kits picked antibody titres greater than the standard cut-off titre at 2 weeks post inoculation, and at 4 weeks post inoculation, all kits picked an antibody titre greater than 1:2560. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 94-9

Isolation, Characterization, and Quantification of Bacteria from African Sausages Sold in Nairobi County, Kenya

African sausages are local popular delicacies in Kenya. Demand for these sausages has resulted in this delicacy’s vendors being on the increase. However, health risk posed to unsuspecting consumers of African sausages sold in informal, unhygienic make shift road-side kiosks in major cities of Kenya is largely unknown. A descriptive study was designed to isolate, characterize and quantify bacteria from African sausages sold in Nairobi County. A total of hundred (100) African sausages (62 roasted and 38 nonroasted) were conveniently collected from three meat eatery points of Westlands, Kangemi slum, and Pangani estates. Five genera of bacteria, namely, Staphylococcus spp. at 50.4%, Bacillus spp. at 19.5%, Streptococcus spp. 9.8%, Proteus spp. 2.4%, and E. coli spp. at 1.6%, were isolated from 80 African sausage samples. The total aerobic bacterial count range was between 1.0-9.9x101 and 1.0-9.9x107 log cfu/g with 37 samples having total aerobic bacterial count of between 1.0-9.9 x104 and 1.0-9.9 x107 log cfu/g. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) in distribution of isolates and total aerobic bacterial count across geographical sites studied among the roasted and nonroasted African sausages. This study has demonstrated presence of bacteria in African sausages which are potentially zoonotic to humans. Comprehensive study is needed to sample more eatery meat points in Nairobi and other areas in order to demonstrate pathogenic attributes of these isolates and establish the respective total aerobic bacterial count. There is also need to establish the sources of bacteria due to high total aerobic bacterial count determined in the current study

Isolation, Characterization, and Quantification of Bacteria from African Sausages Sold in Nairobi County, Kenya

African sausages are local popular delicacies in Kenya. Demand for these sausages has resulted in this delicacy’s vendors being on the increase. However, health risk posed to unsuspecting consumers of African sausages sold in informal, unhygienic make shift road-side kiosks in major cities of Kenya is largely unknown. A descriptive study was designed to isolate, characterize and quantify bacteria from African sausages sold in Nairobi County. A total of hundred (100) African sausages (62 roasted and 38 nonroasted) were conveniently collected from three meat eatery points of Westlands, Kangemi slum, and Pangani estates. Five genera of bacteria, namely, Staphylococcus spp. at 50.4%, Bacillus spp. at 19.5%, Streptococcus spp. 9.8%, Proteus spp. 2.4%, and E. coli spp. at 1.6%, were isolated from 80 African sausage samples. The total aerobic bacterial count range was between 1.0-9.9x101 and 1.0-9.9x107 log cfu/g with 37 samples having total aerobic bacterial count of between 1.0-9.9 x104 and 1.0-9.9 x107 log cfu/g. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) in distribution of isolates and total aerobic bacterial count across geographical sites studied among the roasted and nonroasted African sausages. This study has demonstrated presence of bacteria in African sausages which are potentially zoonotic to humans. Comprehensive study is needed to sample more eatery meat points in Nairobi and other areas in order to demonstrate pathogenic attributes of these isolates and establish the respective total aerobic bacterial count. There is also need to establish the sources of bacteria due to high total aerobic bacterial count determined in the current study

Gumboro Disease Outbreaks Cause High Mortality Rates in Indigenous Chickens in Kenya

Infectious bursal disease is a disease of economic importance which affects all types of chickens and causes variable mortality. To establish the importance of this disease in the indigenous chickens in Kenya a comparative study of natural outbreaks in flocks of layers, broilers and indigenous chickens was done. Thirty nine outbreak farms (5 keeping broilers, 19 keeping layers and 15 keeping indigenous flock) were visited; vaccination history collected, clinical signs observed, flock size and number of dead birds recorded. Diagnosis was done through Gross pathology and Agar gel precipitation tests (AGPT). Haemorrhages in skeletal muscles and destruction of the bursa of Fabricius were seen in all flock types. Bursa of Fabricius presented with haemorrhage, oedema and necrosis. Indigenous chickens had the highest average mortality rate (39.2%), followed by layers (31.1%) and broilers (13.4%) Difference in average mortality rates between layers, broilers and indigenous flocks was, however, not statistically significant (P>0.05). There was also no association between flock type and level of mortality rate (P>0.05). Effective control strategies should be developed to target the three chicken flock types in Kenya.Keywords: Infectious bursal disease, vaccination failure, disease control, chicken productio

Appraisal of Village Chickens Potential in Egg Production

A study was carried out on the laying capacities of Village / indigenous and exotic / commercial hens that were brought to the Agricultural Society of Kenya show, Nairobi, over a period of 10 years. The parameter of egg-production capacity was estimated by the pliability of bones, especially the pubic bone spread and the space between the pubic bone and the keel bone; measured as number of fingers that can fit between each space, respectively. The results showed that some of the indigenous birds had good laying capacities, contrary to popular belief. Some indigenous birds were close to, and others had higher laying capabilities than the respective commercial ones. This observation indicates that, with a little extra effort in management and genetic selection, these village birds have a potential of increasing their egg yields. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 10-1

Pasteurella multocida in scavenging family chickens and ducks:Carrier status, age susceptibility and transmission between species

International audience<i>Pasteurella multocida</i> causes fowl cholera, a highly contagious and severe disease in chicken and water fowls. The disease is not well described in less intensive production systems, including scavenging family poultry production in developing countries. <i>P. multocida</i> was isolated from 25.9 % of healthy looking ducks and 6.2 % of chickens from free range family poultry farms and at slaughter slabs at marked. On experimental infection with 1.2 –2.0 x 108 organisms of the <i>P. multocida</i> type strain (NCTC 10322T), 12 week-old chickens expressed fowl cholera clinical signs significantly more times (372) than those of 4, 8 and 16 week chicken (173, 272, 187) and more signs were severe. In family ducks the 8 week-old birds expressed clinical signs significantly more times (188) than those of other age groups (117, 80, and 83) and severe signs were more frequent. <i>P. multocida</i> transmitted from seeder birds (n=12) to sentinel birds (n=30), which developed clinical signs, and in some cases lesions of fowl cholera and allowed bacterial re-isolation, whether infected ducks served as seeder for chicken or chicken served as seeder for ducks. This study has documented the occurrence of <i>P. multocida</i> among healthy-appearing family poultry in tropical setting, and demonstrated that age susceptibility is highest in 12 week old family chicken and 8 week old family ducks when challenged with a low virulent strain of <i>P. multocida</i>. It has further demonstrated that cross transmission of fowl cholera may happen between family ducks and chickens and vice versa

A Study on Effectiveness of Seven Disinfectants Against Possible Bacteria Contaminants of Coops and Premises Inhabited by Indigenous Chickens and Ducks

Seven commonly used disinfectants abbreviated as A, B, C, D, E, F and G (A is, Glutaraldehyde and Coco – benzyl dimethyl ammonium chloride; B is, Didecyldimethyl ammonium bromide 50% w\\v; C is, Sodium hypochlorite; D is, pine disinfectant and antiseptic; E is, chloroxylenol; F is, phenol and that for disinfectant G is, cresol and soap solution) were evaluated for their effectiveness in disinfecting coops and premises of indigenous chickens and ducks. Bacterial isolates from 14 samples (each sample comprising of a pharyngeal and a cloacal swab from one bird pooled together) from village chickens and ducks were used in this study. The isolates were taken to represent microorganisms in the birds\' environment. Results showed that effectiveness amongst the disinfectants varied markedly. Two disinfectants were very effective (sensitivity of 80% and 60% respectively), three were moderate (30% sensitivity, each) and two were ineffective. Some of them were effective only at a concentration higher than that recommended by the manufacturer. For effective disinfection occasional sensitivity testing is therefore recommended. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 113-11

Indigenous Ducks are Better Reservoirs of P. multocida than Indigenous Chickens

Two experiments were performed to study cross infections from chickens to ducks and vice versa. For each experiment the source birds (chickens or ducks) were infected with Pasteurella multocida strain 10322T. The infected birds were then mixed with sentinel indigenous ducks or chickens, respectively, six hours after inoculation. To monitor cross transmission, oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were taken from the sentinel birds daily, for culture on blood agar and other media, for two weeks. The cultured bacterial isolates were characterized for P. multocida through biochemical and other tests. For chickens to duck transmission study a few ducks (40%) picked the bacteria on the first day, number of infected birds increasing with time and the birds had high infection rate (60%) by day 14 post-infection. In the duck to chicken transmission study, most chickens (80%) were infected by the first day and maintained infection up to the twelfth day (60%) but appeared to clear the infection thereafter. These results showed that it was possible to transmit P. multocida from indigenous chickens to ducks and vice versa. The duck may be a better carrier of P. multocida under scavenging system than chickens. This contact cross transmission may be playing a role in the maintenance of the bacterium at the village level. The Kenya Veterinarian Vol. 29 2005: pp. 104-10