Exploring trans and gender diverse issues in primary education in South Australia

Executive Summary An increasing number of young children identify with a gender that differs from that normatively expected of their natally-assigned sex (e.g. Smith & Matthews, 2015; Telfer, Tollit, & Feldman, 2015). Such young children tend to be referred to as trans or gender diverse. The term ‘trans’ is typically used to refer to people whose gender or gender expression differs from that normatively expected of their natally-assigned sex (where those born with a penis are assigned male and expected to act in stereotypically masculine ways or to present themselves as male, and where those born with a vagina are assigned female and expected to act in stereotypically feminine ways or to present themselves as female). The term ‘gender diverse’ is typically used to refer to people whose gender identity is not encompassed by the two categories ‘male’ or ‘female’. Importantly, the terms ‘trans’ and ‘gender diverse’ encompass a wide range of gender expressions. While population studies suggest that between 0.5% and 1% of people are trans or gender diverse (Clark et al., 2014; Conron, Scott, Stowell, & Landers, 2012), it has been suggested that figures of gender diversity are significantly higher during childhood (Möller, Schreier, Li, & Romer, 2009). Brill and Pepper (2008) argue that there are three typical ages when people acknowledge that they are trans or gender diverse: childhood, preteen/early adolescence, and late adolescence. For children who disclose that they are trans or gender diverse, the likelihood of having their gender affirmed by others is closely related to people’s understandings of gender diversity. Schools constitute a key context in which children may disclose that they are trans or gender diverse, thus highlighting the importance of schools providing affirming and informed responses. However, research with parents of trans and gender diverse primary school children suggests that a key barrier to inclusion in schools relates to staff members’ understandings of gender, and whether issues of gender diversity are viewed as taboo or are positively included within school policies and practices (Pullen Sansfaçon, Robichaud, & Dumais-Michaud, 2015). Australian research with students at the secondary level has clearly documented trans and gender diverse students’ negative experiences of school and the implications of this for their well-being (Jones & Hillier, 2013; Jones et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2014; Ullman, 2015). Australian research with parents of trans children, including at the primary level, has emphasised the importance of supportive schools, and the negative impact of gender stereotyping in schools (Riley, Sitharthan, Clemson, & Diamond, 2013), including by school counsellors and psychologists (Riggs & Bartholomaeus, 2015). The important role that schools can play is currently hindered in Australia by two key issues: 1) the lack of opportunities for educator professional development and support for working with trans and gender diverse students, and 2) the broader climate of misunderstanding and fear, evidenced in recent debates about the Safe Schools Coalition. The research documented in this report extends the limited amount of research about trans and gender diverse issues in primary education internationally. Rather than focusing on individual trans and gender diverse students, the research examines broader school cultures in relation to educator attitudes and knowledge and the usefulness of classroom resources in the form of picture books for creating inclusive schools. The project received ethics approval from Flinders University and the Department for Education and Child Development. The research objectives of the project were to: 1. Identify the existing attitudes and knowledge of in-service and pre-service primary school teachers in South Australia about trans and gender diverse students and issues 2. Audit available picture books featuring trans or gender diverse characters 3. Explore the usefulness of picture books which include trans characters for use in primary classrooms by examining students’ understandings 4. Create an online resource with information for supporting trans and gender diverse young people An online survey examining attitudes towards inclusion, comfort, and confidence in relation to trans and gender diverse students was completed by a sample of South Australian primary school teachers (n = 75) and pre-service teachers (n = 105). Findings between the two cohorts were very similar. The findings from both groups overall suggest that women had more positive attitudes and greater comfort in working with trans and gender diverse students, and that those who had previously worked with a trans or gender diverse student and who had undertaken training had more positive attitudes, greater comfort, and greater confidence in working with trans and gender diverse students. An audit of picture books featuring trans or gender diverse characters found that there were 34 such books in existence. Twenty of these books focus on trans characters specifically, while 14 focus on various forms of gender diversity. Of those books currently in existence, only three are Australian. The books provide an array of different storylines and relationships which may be useful for exploring with trans and gender diverse children as well as whole classes of children. However, the books often draw on gender stereotypes, reflecting broader cultural representations and understandings of trans and gender diverse people. Picture books featuring trans characters were explored in book reading sessions with one class of junior primary school students in a government school in South Australia. These books were useful for encouraging discussion and exploration of trans and gender diverse people’s lives. The issues raised in the books were not always clear to the students, although their understandings appeared to grow over the sessions and they were often supportive of the characters. Overall, the salience of hair and clothing in determining gender was central, and many students viewed gender as something fundamental. In some ways the students reiterated the framings of the books in terms of the constructions of binaries (girl/boy) and gender-typed clothing and hair length. Drawing on these three sources of data, the report concludes with recommendations for developing inclusive school cultures, with a focus on making professional development, resources, and support available to educators. The findings from the three studies highlight the need for: 1. The provision of ongoing teacher education, as professional development and within universities 2. Additional resourcing of programs aimed at facilitating inclusion, such as the Safe Schools Coalition 3. DECD-sanctioned policies and guidelines to support teachers and schools to create inclusive whole school cultures 4. Increase in provision of resources to learn about gender diversity, such as picture books in school libraries, and clearer teaching guides for how to use these in class

Examen des Réactions D’intolérance aux Aliments et aux Additifs Alimentaires

There is ongoing interest in the community in the area of intolerance reactions to food and food additives. To inform future discussions on this subject, FSANZ initiated a scientific review to give further consideration to key issues underpinning the public debate. This paper provides an overview of the contemporary understanding of food intolerance, and highlights the individual nature of intolerance reactions and the wide range of food chemicals, whether naturally occurring or added to food, which may contribute to intolerance reactions. The clinical manifestations of intolerance described in the literature vary widely, both in relation to the symptoms reported and the substances implicated. Symptoms associated with food intolerance reactions range from mild to severe but the effects are largely transient. The immune system is not involved in these reactions, and therefore these forms of food intolerance are not allergies.   Food substances most commonly associated with intolerance reactions are naturally occurring chemicals such as salicylates and biogenic amines. While some food additives may contribute to intolerance reactions, clinical observations suggest that affected individuals are usually sensitive to several substances, including both natural food chemicals as well as artificial and natural food additives. Food additives, particularly food colours, are perceived to be a major cause of intolerance reactions in the community. However, except for sulphites, clinical evidence of a causal link between food additives and intolerance reactions is limited, and the frequency, severity and spectrum of symptoms are yet to be determined.   In Australia and New Zealand, the approval of food additives follows a rigorous process based on two principles: the additive must fulfil a technological function, and must not pose a safety concern to consumers at the proposed level of use. Approved additives must be declared on the food label. This regulatory approach ensures a high level of safety for all consumers and supports dietary management for individuals affected by food intolerance.La communauté manifeste un intérêt soutenu à l’égard des réactions d’intolérance aux aliments et aux additifs alimentaires. Pour éclairer les discussions à ce sujet, l’agence FSANZ a entrepris un examen scientifique visant à approfondir les principaux enjeux qui sous‐ tendent le débat public. Le présent document fait état de la compréhension actuelle des intolérances alimentaires et met en évidence la variabilité des réactions d’intolérance selon les individus, de même que la vaste gamme de substances chimiques alimentaires, qu’elles soient   naturellement présentes ou ajoutées aux aliments, susceptibles de contribuer aux réactions d’intolérance. La description des manifestations cliniques de lʹintolérance, que ce soit les symptômes eux‐mêmes ou les substances qui en sont responsables, varie grandement dans la littérature. Les symptômes attribués aux réactions d’intolérance alimentaire peuvent être mineurs ou sévères, mais ces effets sont généralement passagers. Comme le système immunitaire ne joue aucun rôle dans ces réactions, ce type d’intolérances alimentaires n’est pas assimilé aux allergies.   Les substances alimentaires les plus fréquemment mises en cause dans les réactions d’intolérance sont des substances chimiques d’origine naturelle telles que les salicylates et les amines biogènes. Bien que certains additifs puissent contribuer aux réactions dʹintolérance, les observations cliniques donnent à penser qu’habituellement, les personnes qui en sont atteintes sont sensibles à plusieurs substances, notamment aux substances chimiques alimentaires naturelles et artificielles de même qu’aux additifs alimentaires naturels et artificiels. Les additifs alimentaires, et plus particulièrement, les colorants alimentaires, constitueraient la principale cause des réactions d’intolérance dans la communauté. Toutefois, les données cliniques établissant le lien causal entre les additifs alimentaires et les intolérances, à l’exception des sulfites, sont limitées, et la fréquence, la gravité et la gamme des symptômes ne sont pas encore déterminées. En Australie et en Nouvelle‐Zélande, le processus d’approbation des additifs est rigoureux et fondé sur deux principes : l’additif doit remplir une fonction technologique et, utilisé à la dose proposée, il ne doit poser aucun risque pour la santé des consommateurs. La présence des additifs autorisés doit être déclarée sur l’étiquette des aliments. Cette approche réglementaire permet de veiller très efficacement à la sécurité de tous les consommateurs et aide les personnes atteintes d’intolérances alimentaires dans la gestion de leur alimentation

Review of intolerance reactions to food and food additives

There is ongoing interest in the community in the area of intolerance reactions to food and food additives. To inform future discussions on this subject, FSANZ initiated a scientific review to give further consideration to key issues underpinning the public debate. This paper provides an overview of the contemporary understanding of food intolerance, and highlights the individual nature of intolerance reactions and the wide range of food chemicals, whether naturally occurring or added to food, which may contribute to intolerance reactions. The clinical manifestations of intolerance described in the literature vary widely, both in relation to the symptoms reported and the substances implicated. Symptoms associated with food intolerance reactions range from mild to severe but the effects are largely transient. The immune system is not involved in these reactions, and therefore these forms of food intolerance are not allergies. Food substances most commonly associated with intolerance reactions are naturally occurring chemicals such as salicylates and biogenic amines. While some food additives may contribute to intolerance reactions, clinical observations suggest that affected individuals are usually sensitive to several substances, including both natural food chemicals as well as artificial and natural food additives. Food additives, particularly food colours, are perceived to be a major cause of intolerance reactions in the community. However, except for sulphites, clinical evidence of a causal link between food additives and intolerance reactions is limited, and the frequency, severity and spectrum of symptoms are yet to be determined. In Australia and New Zealand, the approval of food additives follows a rigorous process based on two principles: the additive must fulfil a technological function, and must not pose a safety concern to consumers at the proposed level of use. Approved additives must be declared on the food label. This regulatory approach ensures a high level of safety for all consumers and supports dietary management for individuals affected by food intolerance

Genetic basis and detection of unintended effects in genetically modified crop plants

In January 2014, an international meeting sponsored by the International Life Sciences Institute/Health and Environmental Sciences Institute and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency titled “Genetic Basis of Unintended Effects in Modified Plants” was held in Ottawa, Canada, bringing together over 75 scientists from academia, government, and the agro-biotech industry. The objectives of the meeting were to explore current knowledge and identify areas requiring further study on unintended effects in plants and to discuss how this information can inform and improve genetically modified (GM) crop risk assessments. The meeting featured presentations on the molecular basis of plant genome variability in general, unintended changes at the molecular and phenotypic levels, and the development and use of hypothesis-driven evaluations of unintended effects in assessing conventional and GM crops. The development and role of emerging “omics” technologies in the assessment of unintended effects was also discussed. Several themes recurred in a number of talks; for example, a common observation was that no system for genetic modification, including conventional methods of plant breeding, is without unintended effects. Another common observation was that “unintended” does not necessarily mean “harmful”. This paper summarizes key points from the information presented at the meeting to provide readers with current viewpoints on these topics

Regulating Safety of Novel Food and Genetically Modified Crops

The principle of proportionality, embodying concepts of fairness, equity, and consistency, is fundamental to human rights, national and international law, and subordinate regulation. This principle, in theory, provides some limits on the potential unintended consequences that may result from disproportionate regulatory burdens distorting individual and corporate behaviour, the consequences of which may exceed the real or imagined harms the original regulations were intended to prevent. Current regulatory burdens applied in a number of jurisdictions on recombinant DNA technology and the new biotechnologies, however, as opposed to other less precise mechanisms of gene alteration in common use, are applied discriminately, are disproportionate to the known (lack of) plausible food safety risks, are ignorant of the broader knowledge of natural plant genome plasticity, and are consequently ethically highly questionable at best. Although major corporations developing GM crops are arguably beneficiaries of the reduced competition resulting from disproportionate regulatory burdens and their associated costs, this comes at the substantial detriment both to the respective jurisdictions and to developing economies seeking to improve the welfare of disadvantaged communities through the use of advanced plant breeding technologies. Disproportionate regulation of GMOs is consequently risk generating rather than risk mitigating and is contrary to the intent of the precautionary principle. The key principles underlying rational, ethical, risk proportionate regulation of new plant varieties developed by any technique, conventional or otherwise, are discussed

Inhibition of P-450 by aucubin: is the biological activity of aucubin due to its glutaraldehyde-like aglycone?

The inhibition of ethoxy coumarin O-deethylase (ECOD) activity by aucubin and its aglycone was examined in a microsomal system and in freshly isolated hepatocytes. Aucubin was found to be inactive but the aglycone was found to be a potent time-dependent inhibitor of ECOD activity in both systems. The close structural similarity between the aglycone of aucubin and glutaraldehyde suggests a similiar mechanism of enzyme inhibition through protein cross-linking by Schiff reactions. The similarity between the 2 compounds was demonstrated through their closely similar binding spectra to bovine serum albumin. The biological activities reported for the aglycone are suggested to be due to this similarity to glutaraldehyde

Review of the toxicology of carbonyl sulfide, a new grain fumigant

Carbonyl sulfide (COS) is a new grain fumigant which has been developed to replace methyl bromide, being phased out due to its ozone depletion properties, and to supplement phosphine gas which is experiencing increased insect resistance. Treatment of commodities with COS, a highly effective fumigant, results in residues that are near or indistinguishable to natural background levels of this compound. COS is a naturally occurring gas, being the predominant sulfur moiety in the atmosphere, occurs naturally in food and is a normal by-product of mammalian aerobic metabolism. COS has low acute inhalational toxicity but with a steep dose response curve; COS is neither genotoxic nor a developmental toxicant but does reversibly impair male fertility. Prolonged, repeated exposure to COS is likely to present similar neurotoxicity hazards to that of the structurally and toxicologically related compound carbon disulfide. Although the occupational risks presented by COS as a fumigant of bulk grain are significant, these are, as they have been for a considerable time for phosphine and methyl bromide, manageable by good occupational safety practices. Consideration may need to be given to scrubbing of ventilated COS and its breakdown product hydrogen sulfide, at the completion of fumigation to minimise worker and bystander exposure. In terms of classical regulatory toxicology studies, the available database for COS is deficient in many aspects and registration in most jurisdictions will depend on sound scientific argument built upon the totality of the existing scientific data as there are strong arguments supporting the registration of this compound

Dermal absorption of chemicals: Some australian regulatory considerations

A wide range of chemicals in formulated products are used in, and around, the average residential dwelling and occupational workplace. Intentional or inadvertent exposure to these chemicals may occur via the dermal, inhalation, and oral routes. However, the main route of exposure for the majority of products is the dermal route. A key step in the regulation of chemicals that are used in these settings is to ascertain their safety. This is usually done with a risk assessment. An important element of a risk assessment is to provide a quantitative estimate of the extent of both dermal exposure and the resultant internal (or systemic) dose. This chapter focuses on the estimation of internal dose once dermal exposure has been determined. Practical aspects of the process of extrapolation from animal data in the estimation of human risk are also discussed using data for two insect repellents, picaridin, and dimethyl phthalate (DMP), as examples

The capacity of South Australian primary school teachers and pre-service teachers to work with trans and gender diverse students

Growing numbers of young people are disclosing that they are trans or gender diverse, requiring affirming and informed responses from schools. This article reports on a survey examining attitudes towards inclusion, comfort, and confidence amongst 180 South Australian primary school teachers and pre-service teachers. The findings suggest that women held more positive attitudes and had greater comfort in working with trans and gender diverse students than men, and that awareness of programs designed to increase understanding was related to more positive attitudes, and greater comfort and confidence. The article discusses the need for further training alongside additional resourcing of initiatives aimed at facilitating inclusion.Clare Bartholomaeus, Damien W.Riggs, Yarrow Andre