Functional significance of highly variable colouration in the shore skink (Oligosoma smithi) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in Ecology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand

Variation in animal colouration is attributed to several biological functions, a key one being camouflage. Background-matching is a camouflage strategy where prey conceal themselves from predators by resembling their immediate backgrounds. Achieving optimal background-matching can be challenging, particularly in 1) visual backgrounds that form a mosaic caused by spatial variations in habitat characteristics, and 2) varying predator abundance or behaviour. Additionally, crypsis can be affected by alternative and potentially antagonistic functions, such as intraspecific signalling and thermoregulation. This thesis aimed to investigate the selective processes that affect prey colouration for background-matching in a heterogeneous environment. Specifically, I focused on the influence of habitat gradients, predator behaviour, and the potential conflict between camouflage requirements and thermoregulation or intraspecific signalling. Firstly, I conducted a detailed survey on the colour and colour patterns of a wild shore skink population (Oligosoma smithi) within a continuous heterogeneous habitat at Tāwharanui Regional Park. This population’s body colouration showed a significant association with a vegetation gradient, consistent with selection for background-matching. However, field experiments also revealed that predation risk for the more common colour pattern variants was double that of the rarer variant’s regardless of background type, consistent with predictions for apostatic selection (negative frequency-dependent selection). Secondly, I demonstrated that population colouration can respond to a change of habitat. One year after a translocation of shore skinks to an island habitat with a disjunct two-patch background, the population’s colours matched the simple substrate type (bare rocky stones) more than the complex substrate (high vegetation cover on sand). Skinks were darker, less intense in colour, and had lower colour pattern diversity compared to the founder and source populations at Tāwharanui. This study highlighted the potential significance of considering camouflage requirements of a species in human-induced translocations. Thirdly, in an analysis of seasonal effects to camouflage, I found no evidence that background-matching in the Tāwharanui population was compromised by differences in body colours between breeding and non-breeding seasons. This is likely because colours associated with intraspecific signalling (i.e. that exhibited age-dependence and sexual dichromatism) were located in the ventral body regions of skinks that would typically be hidden from predators. Finally, across 17 populations, shore skink colouration showed patterns of spatial variation consistent with thermal melanism (thermoregulation) and island syndrome. Despite the strong correlation of maximum monthly temperature on colours and latitude on colour patterns, I suggest that the significantly darker island populations were caused by a combination of local adaptation (i.e. crypsis) and non-selective forces (e.g., genetic drift). Overall, my thesis provides new insight on how different selection processes maintain dramatic colouration within a species, and marks the first quantitative research on colouration in New Zealand reptiles

Post-stress interface trap generation induced by oxide-field stress with FN injection

Interface trap generation in nMOS transistors during both stressing and post-stress periods under the conditions of oxide field (dynamic and dc) stress with FN injection is investigated with charge pumping technique. In contrast to the post-stress interface trap generation induced by hot carrier stress which is a logarithmical function of post-stress time, the poststress interface trap generation induced by oxide-field stress with FN injection first increases with post-stress time but then becomes saturated. The mechanisms for the interface trap generation in both stressing and post-stress periods are described. © 1998 IEEE.published_or_final_versio

Positron-electron autocorrelation function study of E-center in silicon

A study was conducted on the positron-electron autocorrelation function of defect center in silicon. The positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) spectra taken on the as-grown and defected samples of silicon were studied. It was found that the positron binding energy to the defect could be estimated from the ratio of the positron-electron autocorrelates for bulk crystal and defect trapped positron states.published_or_final_versio

Kampung Hijau Produktif Sebagai Penerapan Corporate Social Responsibility

This research background is the establishment of a legal rule regarding Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in 2007. This study aims to discuss the positive impact of CSR implementation by companies in Kramatinggil, Gresik, East Java. The research subjects are the people who are the majority have a high school education background. The method used in the study of the application of CSR is a qualitative descriptive method. The qualitative approach in this research uses a phenomenological. Data processing, in this case, is done by categorising field notes from the results of depth interviews. Data processing is also done from the effects of survey data that has been processed and then narrated and from the impact of FGD (Focus Group Discussion) conducted for beneficiaries. The result shows that the community have proven to be successful in increasing the ratio of gardens to the entire space used by the application of vertical gardens and Planting Fruits in Pot (Tabulampot). The activity showed that the company's CSR in the Kramatinggil area had succeeded in conserving natural resources and the welfare of the surrounding population

Ancient DNA Resolves Identity and Phylogeny of New Zealand's Extinct and Living Quail (Coturnix sp.)

BACKGROUND: The New Zealand quail, Coturnix novaezealandiae, was widespread throughout New Zealand until its rapid extinction in the 1870's. To date, confusion continues to exist concerning the identity of C. novaezealandiae and its phylogenetic relationship to Coturnix species in neighbouring Australia, two of which, C. ypsilophora and C. pectoralis, were introduced into New Zealand as game birds. The Australian brown quail, C. ypsilophora, was the only species thought to establish with current populations distributed mainly in the northern part of the North Island of New Zealand. Owing to the similarities between C. ypsilophora, C. pectoralis, and C. novaezealandiae, uncertainty has arisen over whether the New Zealand quail is indeed extinct, with suggestions that remnant populations of C. novaezealandiae may have survived on offshore islands. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Using fresh and historical samples of Coturnix sp. from New Zealand and Australia, DNA analysis of selected mitochondrial regions was carried out to determine phylogenetic relationships and species status. Results show that Coturnix sp. specimens from the New Zealand mainland and offshore island Tiritiri Matangi are not the New Zealand quail but are genetically identical to C. ypsilophora from Australia and can be classified as the same species. Furthermore, cytochrome b and COI barcoding analysis of the New Zealand quail and Australia's C. pectoralis, often confused in museum collections, show that they are indeed separate species that diverged approximately 5 million years ago (mya). Gross morphological analysis of these birds suggests a parallel loss of sustained flight with very little change in other phenotypic characters such as plumage or skeletal structure. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Ancient DNA has proved invaluable for the detailed analysis and identification of extinct and morphologically cryptic taxa such as that of quail and can provide insights into the timing of evolutionary changes that influence morphology