Compulsory licensing and access to drugs

Compulsory licensing allows the use of a patented invention without the owner's consent, with the aim of improving access to essential drugs. The pharmaceutical sector argues that, if broadly used, it can be detrimental to innovation. We model the interaction between a company in the North that holds the patent for a certain drug and a government in the South that needs to purchase it. We show that both access to drugs and pharmaceutical innovation depend largely on the Southern country's ability to manufacture a generic version. If the manufacturing cost is too high, compulsory licensing is not exercised. As the cost decreases, it becomes a credible threat forcing prices down, but reducing both access and innovation. When the cost is low enough, the South produces its own generic version and access reaches its highest value, despite a reduction in innovation. The global welfare analysis shows that the overall impact of compulsory licensing can be positive, even when accounting for its impact on innovation. We also consider the interaction between compulsory licensing and the strength of intellectual property rights, which can have global repercussions in other markets beyond the South

Mechanisms underlying a thalamocortical transformation during active tactile sensation

During active somatosensation, neural signals expected from movement of the sensors are suppressed in the cortex, whereas information related to touch is enhanced. This tactile suppression underlies low-noise encoding of relevant tactile features and the brain’s ability to make fine tactile discriminations. Layer (L) 4 excitatory neurons in the barrel cortex, the major target of the somatosensory thalamus (VPM), respond to touch, but have low spike rates and low sensitivity to the movement of whiskers. Most neurons in VPM respond to touch and also show an increase in spike rate with whisker movement. Therefore, signals related to self-movement are suppressed in L4. Fast-spiking (FS) interneurons in L4 show similar dynamics to VPM neurons. Stimulation of halorhodopsin in FS interneurons causes a reduction in FS neuron activity and an increase in L4 excitatory neuron activity. This decrease of activity of L4 FS neurons contradicts the "paradoxical effect" predicted in networks stabilized by inhibition and in strongly-coupled networks. To explain these observations, we constructed a model of the L4 circuit, with connectivity constrained by in vitro measurements. The model explores the various synaptic conductance strengths for which L4 FS neurons actively suppress baseline and movement-related activity in layer 4 excitatory neurons. Feedforward inhibition, in concert with recurrent intracortical circuitry, produces tactile suppression. Synaptic delays in feedforward inhibition allow transmission of temporally brief volleys of activity associated with touch. Our model provides a mechanistic explanation of a behavior-related computation implemented by the thalamocortical circuit

Electrochemical Transfer of S Between Molten Steel and Molten Slag

S transfer between molten steel and molten slag was investigated in view of the electrochemical character of S transfer. C-saturated molten steel containing S was allowed to react with CaO-SiO2-Al2O3-MgO slag at 1673 K (1400 degrees C) until the two phases arrive at a chemical equilibrium. The application of an electric field of constant current through graphite electrodes lowered the S content in the molten steel below its chemical equilibrium level, and the system arrived at a new equilibrium level (electrochemical equilibrium). However, subsequent shutting off of the electric field did not lead to the system reverting to the original chemical equilibrium: reversion of S was observed but to a limited extent. The application of an electric field of opposite direction or flowing of CO gas allowed significant reversion of S. Side reactions (decomposition of oxide components) were observed, and these were considered to be coupled to the transfer of S. An electrochemical reaction mechanism was proposed based on the experimental observations found in the present study. (C) The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 201811Nsciescopu

Modeling of Manganese Ferroalloy Slag Properties and Flow During Tapping

Stable operation of submerged-arc furnaces producing high-carbon ferromanganese (HCFeMn) and silicomanganese (SiMn) requires tapping of consistent amounts of liquid slag and metal. Minimal effort to initiate and sustain tapping at reasonable rates is desired, accommodating fluctuations in especially slag chemical composition and temperature. An analytical model is presented that estimates the tapping rate of the liquid slag-metal mixture as a function of taphole dimensions, coke bed particulate properties, and slag and metal physicochemical properties with dependencies on chemical composition and temperature. This model may be used to evaluate the sensitivity to fluctuations in these parameters, and to determine the influence of converting between HCFeMn and SiMn production. The model was applied to typical HCFeMn and SiMn process conditions, using modelled slag viscosities and densities. Tapping flow rates estimated were comparable to operational data and found to be dependent mostly on slag viscosity. Slag viscosities were generally lower for typical SiMn slags due to the higher temperature used for calculating viscosity. It was predicted that flow through the taphole would mostly develop into laminar flow, with the pressure drop predominantly over the coke bed. Flow rates were found to be more dependent on the taphole diameter than on the taphole length.http://link.springer.com/journal/116632016-12-31hb201