Review: Neural correlates of consciousness

A basic understanding of consciousness and its neural correlates is of major importance for all clinicians, especially those involved with patients with altered states of consciousness. In this paper it is shown that consciousness is dependent on the brainstem and thalamus for arousal; that basic cognition is supported by recurrent electrical activity between the cortex and the thalamus at gamma band frequencies; and that some kind of working memory must, at least fleetingly, be present for awareness to occur. Theproblem of cognitive binding and the role of attention are briefly addressed and it is shown that consciousness depends on a multitude of subconscious processes. Although these processes do not represent consciousness, consciousness cannot exist without them.Keywords: Consciousness; Brainstem; Thalamocortical system; Memor

Stress and Obesity as Risk Factors in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Neuroimmune Perspective

Obesity is now growing at an alarming rate reaching epidemic proportions worldwide thus increasing morbidity and mortality rates for chronic disease. But although we have ample information on the complications associated with obesity, precisely what causes obesity remains poorly understood. Some evidence attributes a major role to a low-grade chronic inflammatory state (neurogenic inflammation) induced in obesity by inflammatory mediators produced and secreted within the expanded activated adipocyte pool. Adipose tissue is an endocrine organ that secretes numerous adipose tissue-specific or enriched hormones, known as adipokines, cytokine-like molecules thought to play a pathogenic role in cardiovascular diseases. The imbalance between increased inflammatory stimuli and decreased anti-inflammatory mechanisms may depend on chronic stress. Hence the positive correlation found between stress, obesity and cardiovascular diseases. The chronic inflammatory state associated with insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction is highly deleterious for vascular function. This review focuses on the proposed neuroimmunodulatory mechanisms linking chronic (psychological) stress, obesity and cardiovascular diseases