Task complexity, language proficiency and working memory: Interaction effects on second language speech performance

With the aim of developing a more reliable understanding of the effects of task complexity and learner-internal factors on L2 performance, a 2 × 2 within-between participant study was designed to examine the effects intentional reasoning has on L2 performance, and whether learner language proficiency and working memory mediates these effects. Forty- eight learners of English performed two video-based narrative tasks of varying degrees of intentional reasoning, after taking Oxford Placement Test, Elicited Imitation Tasks and backward-digit span tasks. The results demonstrate that intentional reasoning had significant effects on complexity and accuracy, but no impact on fluency. Regression analyses indicated that proficiency and working memory reliably predicted accuracy across both task types. However, language proficiency and working memory contributed differentially to models predicting lexical complexity and speed fluency in the two task types, highlighting the interaction between task complexity and learner-internal factors. Keywords: second language speech performance, task complexity, intentional reasoning, language proficiency, working memory

The effects of task complexity manipulated by intentional reasoning demands on second language learners’ speech performance: interaction with language proficiency and working memory

A paramount discussion on the cognitive approaches to Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is the issue of predicting the systematic effects of cognitive task complexity (TC) on second language (L2) performance and the factors that interact with the effects of TC (Baralt, 2013; Kormos & Trebits, 2012; Révész, Michel, & Gilabert, 2016; Robinson, 2007; Skehan & Foster, 1999; Tavakoli, 2014). Two competing models of TC, i.e. the Cognition Hypothesis (Robinson, 2001) and the Limited Attentional Capacity (Skehan, 1998) have informed this research agenda. However, there is still a need to more carefully define and systematically operationalise intentional reasoning (IR) as a TC variable within task-based research. More importantly, more research is needed to investigate the interaction between the effects of TC and L2 learners’ individual differences. This thesis draws on the findings of two inter-related studies. Study One aimed to investigate whether increasing TC through IR demands would be associated with an increase in syntactic complexity, lexical complexity, and accuracy, and a decrease in fluency of L2 learners’ oral performance. This study further investigated whether the +IR task would be perceived as more difficult. IR was operationalised on two levels i.e., task instructions and task content. A mixedmethods within-participants study design was conducted with 20 Jordanian secondary school students who performed two video-based oral narrative tasks with varying degrees of IR and completed a retrospective questionnaire on their perceptions of task difficulty (TD). The design was counter-balanced to avoid any practice or order effects. Following the analysis of the participants’ oral performance which was operationalised through a number of CALF measures, the findings of Study One revealed a systematic positive impact of IR on syntactic complexity and accuracy, and a negative impact on lexical complexity. However, fluency was not significantly affected by the IR demands. The participants perceived the +IR task as more difficult than the -IR task. They further attributed the difficulty to the IR demands which were required by task instructions and to the unfamiliarity and unpredictability of the content of the +IR video clip. These mixed results acknowledged the need to consider a possible interaction between the learners’ individual differences and the effects of IR demands on L2 speech production. Study Two was then designed to examine: 1) the effects of manipulating TC by IR in oral narratives on learners’ L2 speech performance and perceptions of TD; 2) whether learners’ individual differences in language proficiency (LP) and working memory (WM) mediate the effects of IR; and 3) to what extent LP and WM can predict performance on tasks of different degrees of TC. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the study had a 2 x 2 within-between-participants factorial design. The participants were 48 learners of English at a secondary school in Jordan. They performed the same two video-based oral narratives of Study One and completed a retrospective questionnaire to rate their perceptions of TD. A counter-balanced design was used to control for any impact of order or practice. Oxford Placement Test (Alan, 2004) and a set of elicited imitation tasks (Wu & Ortega, 2013) were used to measure the participants’ LP, and backward-digit span tasks in L1 and L2 (Kormos & Trebits, 2011; Wright, 2010) were used to test their WM. The participants’ oral performance was analysed in terms of a number of CALF measures. The quantitative and qualitative data obtained from the questionnaire were carefully analysed. The results confirmed that IR demands resulted in significantly producing more syntactic complexity, accuracy, speed fluency, and filled pausing, whereas lexical complexity decreased in the +IR task. However, no effects were evident on silent pausing or repair fluency. The participants perceived the +IR task as more difficult than the -IR task. The same themes which were mentioned in Study One emerged as the main factors that contributed to the perceptions of TD, i.e. task-induced and task-inherent cognitive demands as triggered by task instructions and content. Even though main effects were detected for LP and WM on some aspects of L2 performance, no interaction effects were significantly observed between TC and LP or WM. The findings further designated LP as a reliable predictor of speech performance with respect to lexical complexity, accuracy, speed fluency, and pausing fluency. However, WM did not statistically explain variations in any aspect of L2 oral performance but correlated significantly with accuracy and lexical complexity. These results imply that considering cognitive task complexity in isolation may provide a too simplistic picture of what is happening during task performance. Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of considering the interrelation between the cognitive demands of a task and its linguistic requirements to explain intentionality when making decisions on what analytic measures of CALF to employ. The findings have also substantial implications for L2 pedagogy and research

Self-efficacy and emotional intelligence as psychological variables: To what extent do they affect mastering English language skills among university students?

This study endeavors to widen our knowledge regarding the relationship between general self-efficacy (SE) beliefs, language skills self-efficacy and L2 learners’ emotional intelligence (EI). Furthermore, the study attempts to reveal whether L2 learners’ gender, academic level, and academic achievement interact with self-efficacy and emotional intelligence among university students. Employing a descriptive correlational study design, 205 participants (94 males and 111 females) were selected to participate in this study. Their general SE beliefs, EFL skills SE and EI were measured using five-point Likert format scales. A background information questionnaire was administered to gather information about the participants’ gender, academic level and academic achievement. The findings revealed a positive correlation between general SE, English skills SE, and EI. The findings further designated a positive correlation between the participants’ English language skills SE and their academic achievement. It was finally found that general SE and EI have the power to explain the variation in English language SE. The findings will be discussed in line with previous relevant research and the related theories

Towards a Model of Multi-dimensional Performance of C1 Level Speakers Assessed in the Aptis Speaking Test

This is a peer-reviewed online research report in the British Council Validation Series (https://www.britishcouncil.org/exam/aptis/research/publications/validation). Abstract The current study draws on the findings of Tavakoli, Nakatsuhara and Hunter’s (2017) quantitative study which failed to identify any statistically significant differences between various fluency features in speech produced by B2 and C1 level candidates in the Aptis Speaking test. This study set out to examine whether there were differences between other aspects of the speakers’ performance at these two levels, in terms of lexical and syntactic complexity, accuracy and use of metadiscourse markers, that distinguish the two levels. In order to understand the relationship between fluency and these other aspects of performance, the study employed a mixed-methods approach to analysing the data. The quantitative analysis included descriptive statistics, t-tests and correlational analyses of the various linguistic measures. For the qualitative analysis, we used a discourse analysis approach to examining the pausing behaviour of the speakers in the context the pauses occurred in their speech. The results indicated that the two proficiency levels were statistically different on measures of accuracy (weighted clause ratio) and lexical diversity (TTR and D), with the C1 level producing more accurate and lexically diverse output. The correlation analyses showed speed fluency was correlated positively with weighted clause ratio and negatively with length of clause. Speed fluency was also positively related to lexical diversity, but negatively linked with lexical errors. As for pauses, frequency of end-clause pauses was positively linked with length of AS-units. Mid-clause pauses also positively correlated with lexical diversity and use of discourse markers. Repair fluency correlated positively with length of clause, and negatively with weighted clause ratio. Repair measures were also negatively linked with number of errors per 100 words and metadiscourse marker type. The qualitative analyses suggested that the pauses mainly occurred a) to facilitate access and retrieval of lexical and structural units, b) to reformulate units already produced, and c) to improve communicative effectiveness. A number of speech exerpts are presented to illustrate these examples. It is hoped that the findings of this research offer a better understanding of the construct measured at B2 and C1 levels of the Aptis Speaking test, inform possible refinements of the Aptis Speaking rating scales, and enhance its rater training programme for the two highest levels of the test

The Effects of Foreign Language Anxiety on Academic Self-Concept and Achievement Motivation

The aim of the present study was twofold; First, to explore the effects of foreign language anxiety (FLA) on academic self-concept (ASC) and achievement motivation (AM). Second, to investigate whether gender, academic achievement and academic level interact with foreign language anxiety, academic self-concept, and achievement motivation among EFL university students. The study recruited randomly 309 students (135 males and 174 females) from the Department of English Language and Literature at a Jordanian university. Data were gathered during the first semester of the academic year 2021 / 2022. The study adopted a quantitative approach in which the researchers used five-point Likert scales to examine the participants’ foreign language anxiety, academic self-concept and achievement motivation. The results of the study revealed high mean scores of foreign language anxiety, academic self-concept and achievement motivation. However, foreign language anxiety score was the highest. Moreover, a large negative significant correlation between academic self-concept, achievement motivation and foreign language anxiety variables was detected. Additionally, foreign language anxiety showed a collective significant effect explaining 32.5% of the variation in the academic self-concept and achievement motivation. Finally, the results showed a significant statistical difference in foreign language anxiety and academic self-concept in favor of female students

Procrastination in daily academic tasks and its relationship to self-esteem among university students

Procrastination in daily academic tasks is a popular and complex phenomenon that can be influenced by several factors including self-esteem. The current study seeks to explore the relationship between procrastination in daily academic tasks and self-esteem among university students in Jordan. Additionally, the study aims at examining whether the participants’ gender, academic level and academic specialization have significant effects on procrastination in daily academic tasks and self-esteem. Data were collected form 240 university students in Jordan (123 male & 117 female) by administering an online survey. The study adopted a descriptive correlational approach by employing academic procrastination and self-esteem scales. Results of the study reported a low negative relationship between procrastination in daily academic tasks and self-esteem of participants. The participants reported a moderate level of procrastination in daily academic tasks and self-esteem. The level of procrastination was slightly higher than self-esteem level. Moreover, there was a significant difference in levels of procrastination and self-esteem which were attributed to gender which was in favour of male students. Finally, there were no significant differences between procrastination and self-esteem according to academic level or academic specialization variables

NTRU-Like Random Congruential Public-Key Cryptosystem for Wireless Sensor Networks

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are the core of the Internet of Things and require cryptographic protection. Cryptographic methods for WSN should be fast and consume low power as these networks rely on battery-powered devices and microcontrollers. NTRU, the fastest and secure public key cryptosystem, uses high degree, N, polynomials and is susceptible to the lattice basis reduction attack (LBRA). Congruential public key cryptosystem (CPKC), proposed by the NTRU authors, works on integers modulo q and is easily attackable by LBRA since it uses small numbers for the sake of the correct decryption. Herein, RCPKC, a random congruential public key cryptosystem working on degree N=0 polynomials modulo q, is proposed, such that the norm of a two-dimensional vector formed by its private key is greater than q. RCPKC works as NTRU, and it is a secure version of insecure CPKC. RCPKC specifies a range from which the random numbers shall be selected, and it provides correct decryption for valid users and incorrect decryption for an attacker using LBRA by Gaussian lattice reduction. RCPKC asymmetric encryption padding (RAEP), similar to its NTRU analog, NAEP, is IND-CCA2 secure. Due to the use of big numbers instead of high degree polynomials, RCPKC is about 27 times faster in encryption and decryption than NTRU. Furthermore, RCPKC is more than three times faster than the most effective known NTRU variant, BQTRU. Compared to NTRU, RCPKC reduces energy consumption at least thirty times, which allows increasing the life-time of unattended WSNs more than thirty times

Examining Trends of Cigarette Smoking Amongst Syrian Refugees During Their First Two Years in Canada

This brief report explored trends of cigarette smoking among Syrian newcomers in the first two years of resettlement in Canada. 1794 adult Syrian refugees were surveyed about their physical and mental health, and smoking behaviours. Results were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, and logistic regressions. Almost 27% of the sample reported cigarette smoking (50% light smokers and 50% moderate/heavy smokers). Light smokers increased and moderate/heavy smokers decreased in the number of cigarettes smoked from year 1 to year 2. Moderate/heavy smokers were more likely to be male and reported higher post-traumatic stress scores, while light smokers reported higher depression scores. Only 14.3% of smokers recalled receiving advice from health care providers in Canada regarding their smoking habits. Healthcare providers should provide tailored advice to everyone who is an active smoker with a specific emphasis on those who have concurrent health issues