Molecular mechanisms of vascular remodeling in pulmonary arterial hypertension : the implication of tyrosine kinase inhibitors and epigenetic events in the disease

L'hypertension artérielle pulmonaire (HTAP) est une maladie rare caractérisée par une obstruction progressive et un remodelage vasculaire des artères pulmonaires distales, conduisant à une pression artérielle pulmonaire moyenne supérieure à 20mmHg. L'augmentation de la pression aboutit à une dysfonction du ventricule droit et la mort. À l'heure actuelle, il n'existe pas de traitement curatif pour l'HTAP. Il est donc primordial d'identifier de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques. Comme dans le cancer, les cellules musculaires lisses de l'artère pulmonaire des patients atteints d'HTAP présentent un phénotype hyper-prolifératif et résistant à l'apoptose, entraînant un remodelage vasculaire pulmonaire. Ainsi, plusieurs stratégies thérapeutiques anti cancéreuses pourraient être utiles pour le traitement de l'HTAP. Compte tenu de l'expression altérée des récepteurs tyrosines kinases dans l'HTAP ainsi que dans le cancer, les inhibiteurs de tyrosine-kinases (ITK) ont été mise sur le marché pour le traitement de différents types de cancers et ont été envisagées dans le cadre de l'HTAP. Ainsi, l'ITK, Imatinib, a été capable de régresser l'HTAP induite dans des modèles expérimentaux, tandis que l'administration d'un autre inhibiteur, le Dasatinib, était associée au développement de l'HTAP. Récemment, plusieurs études observationnelles ont démontré le développement de l'HTAP chez des patients atteints d'un cancer du poumon non à petites cellules (CPNPC) présentant des réarrangements de la kinase lymphocytaire anaplasique (ALK) et qui ont reçu des ITK ALK/cMET, notamment Xalkori (R-Crizotinib), Ceritinib, Brigatinib et Lorlatinib. Étant donné que l'hypertension pulmonaire peut être associée à plusieurs maladies, y compris le cancer du poumon, la question demeure de savoir si le développement de l'HTAP chez les patients atteints d'un cancer du poumon recevant l'ITK ALK/c-MET représente un événement indésirable du médicament ou un résultat de la propagation de la maladie. Ainsi, l'objectif principal de chapitre 1 est de déterminer si le R-Crizotinib (connu sous le nom de Xalkori et qui est une première ligne de traitement des patients ayant un CPNPC-ALK positif) exacerbe l'HTAP et/ou prédispose à l'HTAP dans des modèles animaux. In vivo, le traitement par R-Crizotinib a entraîné une élévation marquée de la pression systolique du ventricule droit et de la pression artérielle pulmonaire moyenne associée à une augmentation de l'épaisseur de la paroi médiale des artères pulmonaires distales. De plus, R-Crizotinib, administré avant l'exposition à une faible dose de monocrotaline (MCT), induit une réponse hypertensive pulmonaire exagérée, comme en témoigne une augmentation de la pression systolique du ventricule droit et de la pression artérielle pulmonaire moyenne, de l'épaisseur de la paroi médiale et une diminution du débit cardiaque. In vitro, nous avons démontré que le traitement avec R-Crizotinib réduit la prolifération des cellules endothéliales contrôles de l'artère pulmonaire, effet associé à la formation de cellules multinucléées, ce qui est généralement observée dans les cellules qui meurent d'une une catastrophe mitotique. En conclusion, nous avons démontré que l'agent anticancéreux R-Crizotinib favorise le dysfonctionnement des cellules endothéliales, conduisant à la prédisposition et à l'exacerbation de l'HTAP dans des modèles animaux. Les dernières années de recherche ont approuvé l'importance des marques épigénétiques dans le développement de l'HTAP. En effet, nous nous sommes intéressés, dans le deuxième volet de la thèse, au facteur épigénétique « G9a », qui s'est révélé surexprimé dans différents types de cancers, favorisant la survie et la prolifération des cellules. Compte tenu de l'analogie cancer/HTAP, G9a fut un candidat idéal pour l'étude de son potentiel rôle dans le développement de l'HTAP. Ainsi, l'objectif principal du chapitre 2 est de déterminer si G9a est impliqué dans la progression et la pathogenèse de l'HTAP et de déterminer si son inhibition est bénéfique dans les modèles animaux. Nous avons démontré que G9a est surexprimé dans les artères pulmonaires de patients HTAP et dans les modèles expérimentaux. In vitro, l'inhibition pharmacologique de G9a à l'aide de BIX01294 diminue drastiquement la capacité d'hyper prolifération et la résistance à l'apoptose des cellules musculaires lisses HTAP. Grâce au séquençage d'ARN, nous avons démontré que l'inhibition de G9a s'accompagnait d'une altération du flux d'autophagie et d'une accumulation de lipides. Enfin, le traitement thérapeutique avec BIX01294 a réduit le remodelage vasculaire pulmonaire et la pression artérielle pulmonaire moyenne dans un modèle expérimentale de rat et a également amélioré l'hémodynamique pulmonaire et la fonction ventriculaire droite dans un autre modèle de souris. Ces résultats suggèrent que l'inhibition de G9a pourrait représenter une nouvelle approche thérapeutique dans l'HTAP.Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a rare and fatal disease characterized by "a progressive loss and obstructive remodeling of pulmonary arteries (PAs) leading to a mean pulmonary arterial pressure (mPAP) greater than 20mmHg. The persistent elevation of pulmonary pressures leads to right ventricular dysfunction and death. Currently, there is no cure for patients with PAH, which increases the need to develop new and effective therapeutic strategies. Pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) from PAH patients exhibit a "cancer-like" hyperproliferative and apoptosis-resistant phenotype leading to pulmonary vascular remodeling. Therefore, several anti-cancer therapies could be useful for the treatment of PAH. Given the altered expression of receptor tyrosine kinases and their ligands in PAH as well as in cancer, tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have been marketed for the treatment of different types of cancers and have been in the spotlight for anti-PAH drug research. Indeed, the tyrosine kinase inhibitor, Imatinib, was able to regress established PAH in experimental models, while the administration of another inhibitor, Dasatinib, was associated with the development of PAH. Recently, several observational studies have highlighted the development of PAH in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with anaplastic lymphocyte kinase (ALK) rearrangements who received ALK/cMET TKIs, including Xalkori (R-crizotinib), Ceritinib, Brigatinib, and Lorlatinib. Since pulmonary hypertension can be associated with several diseases, including lung cancer, the question remains whether the development of PAH in lung cancer patients receiving cMET/ALK TKIs represents an adverse drug event or a result of disease spread. Thus, the main objective of Chapter 1 is to determine whether R-Crizotinib (known as Xalkori and which is the first-line treatment for patients with advanced ALK-positive NSCLC) exacerbates PAH and/or predisposes to PAH in experimental animal models. In vivo, R-Crizotinib treatment resulted in a marked elevation of the right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP) and mPAP which was associated with an increased medial wall thickness of the distal PAs. Additionally, we found that pretreatment of rats with R-Crizotinib, induced an exaggerated pulmonary hypertensive response, as evidenced by the increased RVSP, mPAP, medial wall thickness, and decreased cardiac output. In vitro, we have demonstrated that treatment with R-Crizotinib reduces the proliferation of control pulmonary artery endothelial cells, which was accompanied by the appearance of multinucleated cells, a feature commonly seen in cells dying from mitotic catastrophe. In conclusion, we have demonstrated for the first time that the anticancer agent R-Crizotinib promotes endothelial cell dysfunction, leading to susceptibility and exacerbation of PAH in animal models. Previous studies have demonstrated the importance of epigenetic marks in the development and progression of PAH. Indeed, we were interested in the second part of the thesis, in the epigenetic factor "G9a", which was found to be overexpressed in different types of cancers, promoting cell survival and proliferation. Given the similarities between PAH and cancer, G9a was the ideal candidate to study in PAH. Thus, the main objective of Chapter 2 is to determine if G9a is involved in the progression and pathogenesis of PAH and to determine if its inhibition is beneficial in PAH animal models. We demonstrated that G9a is overexpressed in PAs of PAH patients and in experimental models. In vitro, we found that pharmacological inhibition of G9a using BIX01294 drastically reduces the PAH-PASMC proliferation and survival. Through RNA sequencing analysis, we demonstrated that G9a inhibition is accompanied by an impaired autophagy flux and lipid accumulation. Finally, therapeutic treatment with BIX01294 reduced pulmonary vascular remodeling as well as mPAP in an experimental rat model and also improved pulmonary hemodynamics and right ventricular function in another PAH mouse model. These results suggest that G9a inhibition could represent a new therapeutic approach in PAH

Best mode of inspiratory muscle training in heart failure patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis

International audienceObjectives The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of inspiratory muscle training on inspiratory muscle strength, functional capacity and dyspnoea for patients with chronic heart failure, by summarising the published research on the effects of inspiratory muscle training. To identify the best mode of intervention in terms of: the load of maximal inspiratory pressure; the frequency of sessions; and the total duration of intervention. Methods A relevant literature research using the PubMed database, Cochrane and references of published studies, from 1998 to 2016, was conducted. Out of 65 randomised controlled trials, seven were considered as potentially relevant and were retrieved for detailed analysis. The methodological quality of each randomised controlled trial was rated using the physiotherapy evidence database scale. Results The included seven studies contained data on 203 patients. Typical training protocols involved training three, six or seven times per week with intensity ranging from 30% to 60% and for a duration ranging from 6 to 12 weeks. Maximal inspiratory pressure, walking distance and dyspnoea were improved in all studies and especially in those who set a load of 60% in their maximal inspiratory pressure, and have trained patients six times per week for 12 weeks. Conclusion In chronic heart failure patients, inspiratory muscle training results in a marked improvement in inspiratory muscle strength, walking distance and dyspnoea, notably when training patients at 60% of maximal inspiratory pressure, six times per week and for 12 weeks. A small number of studies and heterogeneity among studies may limit the findings of the present study

Preclinical Investigation of Trifluoperazine as a Novel Therapeutic Agent for the Treatment of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

Trifluoperazine (TFP), an antipsychotic drug approved by the Food and Drug Administration, has been show to exhibit anti-cancer effects. Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a devastating disease characterized by a progressive obliteration of small pulmonary arteries (PAs) due to exaggerated proliferation and resistance to apoptosis of PA smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). However, the therapeutic potential of TFP for correcting the cancer-like phenotype of PAH-PASMCs and improving PAH in animal models remains unknown. PASMCs isolated from PAH patients were exposed to different concentrations of TFP before assessments of cell proliferation and apoptosis. The in vivo therapeutic potential of TFP was tested in two preclinical models with established PAH, namely the monocrotaline and sugen/hypoxia-induced rat models. Assessments of hemodynamics by right heart catheterization and histopathology were conducted. TFP showed strong anti-survival and anti-proliferative effects on cultured PAH-PASMCs. Exposure to TFP was associated with downregulation of AKT activity and nuclear translocation of forkhead box protein O3 (FOXO3). In both preclinical models, TFP significantly lowered the right ventricular systolic pressure and total pulmonary resistance and improved cardiac function. Consistently, TFP reduced the medial wall thickness of distal PAs. Overall, our data indicate that TFP could have beneficial effects in PAH and support the view that seeking new uses for old drugs may represent a fruitful approach

Implication of EZH2 in the Pro-Proliferative and Apoptosis-Resistant Phenotype of Pulmonary Artery Smooth Muscle Cells in PAH: A Transcriptomic and Proteomic Approach

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a progressive disorder characterized by a sustained elevation of pulmonary artery (PA) pressure, right ventricular failure, and premature death. Enhanced proliferation and resistance to apoptosis (as seen in cancer cells) of PA smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) is a major pathological hallmark contributing to pulmonary vascular remodeling in PAH, for which current therapies have only limited effects. Emerging evidence points toward a critical role for Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 (EZH2) in cancer cell proliferation and survival. However, its role in PAH remains largely unknown. The aim of this study was to determine whether EZH2 represents a new factor critically involved in the abnormal phenotype of PAH-PASMCs. We found that EZH2 is overexpressed in human lung tissues and isolated PASMCs from PAH patients compared to controls as well as in two animal models mimicking the disease. Through loss- and gain-of-function approaches, we showed that EZH2 promotes PAH-PASMC proliferation and survival. By combining quantitative transcriptomic and proteomic approaches in PAH-PASMCs subjected or not to EZH2 knockdown, we found that inhibition of EZH2 downregulates many factors involved in cell-cycle progression, including E2F targets, and contributes to maintain energy production. Notably, we found that EZH2 promotes expression of several nuclear-encoded components of the mitochondrial translation machinery and tricarboxylic acid cycle genes. Overall, this study provides evidence that, by overexpressing EZH2, PAH-PASMCs remove the physiological breaks that normally restrain their proliferation and susceptibility to apoptosis and suggests that EZH2 or downstream factors may serve as therapeutic targets to combat pulmonary vascular remodeling