Territorialisation transfrontalière entre Brazzaville et Kinshasa : des ressources marchandes à la frontière ressource

International audienceRelations between Brazzaville and Kinshasa are caught in a permanent paradox of conflicts and cooperation, from the point of view of both states and populations. They have been studied through the lens of the history of the cities’ construction, of the cultural links between the riverbanks, and by the prism of specific cross-border trade channels. This article tackles this paradox with a geographical approach, by studying the spatial differentiation of exchanges between the two cities along the riverbanks. It combines a historical approach to the colonial and post-colonial production of river spaces with a field survey carried out in Brazzaville in 2022 at various river crossing points, and scrutinizes diverse places of crossing at an intra-urban scale, emphasizing the tangible exercise of spatially differentiated power. It combines political geography, which sees territory as shaped by the outcome of the exercise of power and by various power dynamics, with border studies. Drawing initially upon former historical and geographical studies, the article illustrates how the colonial division of territory not only delineated the border but also demarcated power centers from marginal spaces along the riverbanks, where the border is notably porous. It proposes a typology of cross-border spaces in Brazzaville, based on observations and interviews carried out on the banks of the river. Concretely, the exercise of power involves the material infrastructure allowing navigation and the practices of state agents, which are the base of the typology. These differences in the exercise of power are analyzed in terms of spatial distribution of the response to the needs of the State to maintain itself : the assertion of its sovereignty and control of its border and the capacity of the population to meet its basic needs. A “topological” rather than “topographic” approach to power allows understanding the coexistence of central and marginal power structures within the same urban space. The paradox of territorialization arises from the spatially differentiated exercise of state power, creating spaces where the border is more or less tangible, exploitable, and leads to an alternative territorialization surpassing the limit between neighboring sovereignties. The unique spatial configuration of Brazzaville and Kinshasa, two political centers facing each other across the Congo River, allows to understand an exercise of power at the border that is highly contrasting at an intra-urban scale. This contrast aids in understanding the historical paradox of recurring conflicts between public authorities and the sustained cooperation among populations. The interplay of conflict and cooperation articulates differentially depending on the crossing points and the resources exchanged therein. The border between Brazzaville and Kinshasa provides a unique spatial setup to examine conflicts and cooperation in a post-colonial context, focusing on traded goods as resources that turn the border itself into a spatial resource.Cet article propose une lecture des échanges de ressources marchandes entre Brazzaville et Kinshasa comme faisant partie d’un processus de territorialisation transfrontalière. Il analyse les différents espaces de passage à une échelle intra-urbaine et comment l’exercice concret du pouvoir y est différencié spatialement. Il s’appuie d’abord sur des études géographiques et historiques anciennes pour montrer comment la division coloniale du territoire a à la fois produit la frontière et différencié des centres du pouvoir d’espaces marginaux sur les rives du fleuve où la frontière est particulièrement poreuse. Il décrit ensuite à partir d’observations et d’entretiens menés à Brazzaville en 2022 différents lieux transfrontaliers et en dresse une typologie à partir du degré et du mode de concrétisation du pouvoir de l’État dans chacun d’eux. La configuration spatiale originale de Brazzaville et Kinshasa, deux centres politiques séparés par un fleuve explique une géographie de l’exercice du pouvoir à la frontière très contrastée à une échelle intra-urbaine, qui permet d’expliquer le paradoxe historique de la récurrence des conflits entre les pouvoirs publics et de la continuité des coopérations entre les populations. Le couple conflit-coopération s’articule d’une manière différenciée selon les lieux de traversée et les ressources marchandes qui y sont échangées

Territorialisation transfrontalière entre Brazzaville et Kinshasa : des ressources marchandes à la frontière ressource

International audienceRelations between Brazzaville and Kinshasa are caught in a permanent paradox of conflicts and cooperation, from the point of view of both states and populations. They have been studied through the lens of the history of the cities’ construction, of the cultural links between the riverbanks, and by the prism of specific cross-border trade channels. This article tackles this paradox with a geographical approach, by studying the spatial differentiation of exchanges between the two cities along the riverbanks. It combines a historical approach to the colonial and post-colonial production of river spaces with a field survey carried out in Brazzaville in 2022 at various river crossing points, and scrutinizes diverse places of crossing at an intra-urban scale, emphasizing the tangible exercise of spatially differentiated power. It combines political geography, which sees territory as shaped by the outcome of the exercise of power and by various power dynamics, with border studies. Drawing initially upon former historical and geographical studies, the article illustrates how the colonial division of territory not only delineated the border but also demarcated power centers from marginal spaces along the riverbanks, where the border is notably porous. It proposes a typology of cross-border spaces in Brazzaville, based on observations and interviews carried out on the banks of the river. Concretely, the exercise of power involves the material infrastructure allowing navigation and the practices of state agents, which are the base of the typology. These differences in the exercise of power are analyzed in terms of spatial distribution of the response to the needs of the State to maintain itself : the assertion of its sovereignty and control of its border and the capacity of the population to meet its basic needs. A “topological” rather than “topographic” approach to power allows understanding the coexistence of central and marginal power structures within the same urban space. The paradox of territorialization arises from the spatially differentiated exercise of state power, creating spaces where the border is more or less tangible, exploitable, and leads to an alternative territorialization surpassing the limit between neighboring sovereignties. The unique spatial configuration of Brazzaville and Kinshasa, two political centers facing each other across the Congo River, allows to understand an exercise of power at the border that is highly contrasting at an intra-urban scale. This contrast aids in understanding the historical paradox of recurring conflicts between public authorities and the sustained cooperation among populations. The interplay of conflict and cooperation articulates differentially depending on the crossing points and the resources exchanged therein. The border between Brazzaville and Kinshasa provides a unique spatial setup to examine conflicts and cooperation in a post-colonial context, focusing on traded goods as resources that turn the border itself into a spatial resource.Cet article propose une lecture des échanges de ressources marchandes entre Brazzaville et Kinshasa comme faisant partie d’un processus de territorialisation transfrontalière. Il analyse les différents espaces de passage à une échelle intra-urbaine et comment l’exercice concret du pouvoir y est différencié spatialement. Il s’appuie d’abord sur des études géographiques et historiques anciennes pour montrer comment la division coloniale du territoire a à la fois produit la frontière et différencié des centres du pouvoir d’espaces marginaux sur les rives du fleuve où la frontière est particulièrement poreuse. Il décrit ensuite à partir d’observations et d’entretiens menés à Brazzaville en 2022 différents lieux transfrontaliers et en dresse une typologie à partir du degré et du mode de concrétisation du pouvoir de l’État dans chacun d’eux. La configuration spatiale originale de Brazzaville et Kinshasa, deux centres politiques séparés par un fleuve explique une géographie de l’exercice du pouvoir à la frontière très contrastée à une échelle intra-urbaine, qui permet d’expliquer le paradoxe historique de la récurrence des conflits entre les pouvoirs publics et de la continuité des coopérations entre les populations. Le couple conflit-coopération s’articule d’une manière différenciée selon les lieux de traversée et les ressources marchandes qui y sont échangées

Le régime foncier tunisien Origines et évolution après l’indépendance

The Tunisian Land Regime. Its Origins and Its Evolution after Independence.France established its protectorate in Tunisia in 1881. The land law situation (situation immobilière) of this widely agricultural country seemed vital to the colonizer, as control (maîtrise) over the land lies at the heart of colonization. But the Tunisian land regime (régime fonder tunisien) appeared very confusing due to the complexity and diversity of tenures as well as to the absence of uniform land law legislation and the imprecision of land titles (titres immobiliers), which lacked adequate publicity. As ownership could not be established with certainty, which was adverse to colonization, it appeared paramount to rapidly reform the regime of land ownership. The authorities of the protectorate, whose first aim was to develop colonization, set up a land regime (régime fonder) based on easily usable ownership rights that were sufficiently secure to attract credit. The land reform introducing the registration of land (immatriculation des immeubles) was put into effect by the law of 01 July 1885. It introduced an original regime, which, from the technical point of view, was a compromise between the Australian system (Torrens Act introduced by Great Britain in its new colony in 1848), the German system and the French Civil Code. It was also comprised of borrowings from the Algerian law of the 26 July 1873 and from Belgian law (as far as ‘hypothèque’ is concerned). This new regime presents the following characteristics : it is based on ‘real publicity’ (‘publicité réelle’), the land (immeuble) and not the owner is named ; registration (immatriculation) is optional ; the registration is carried out by the Mixed Land Tribunal (Tribunal Mixte Immobilier), the decision of which fixes the starting point of ownership ; the updating of the title is in the hands of the parties who have an interest in registering subsequent changes (but the unregistered act remains valid among the parties) ; finally, once the registration (immatriculation) is pronounced, the land (immeuble) comes under the competence of French jurisdiction. This new land regime is very different from the metropolitan French one and it attempts to take into account various requirements. It is legitimate to work on this land legislation, now over a century old, because it has spread in space and time. It spread in space because the Tunisian land law of 1885 has served as a model for many territorial legislations passed under French influence. The prototype has circulated and has been modified over time by different legislators. These modifications have often corrected and improved the initial text. Despite its imperfections, the 1885 law survived political and economic changes during the twentieth century and was adopted by the legislation of independent Tunisia in 1956. The law indeed presents a flexible and adaptable frame. Thus, notwithstanding the interruptions that accompanied Tunisian independence in 1956, there are very clear lines of continuity with the legislation promulgated by independent Tunisia in the Code de droits réels of 1965. The latter includes most of the legislation of 1885, which was judged globally positive. The Code fancier (Land Law Code) has become an object of national pride for Tunisians as it has been exported to other countries. As far as the special jurisdiction that has been created to apply the new legislation is concerned, the Tribunal mixte immobilier continues to exist as the Tribunal immobilier since 1956, but it remains unique in its kind - the model has not been appropriated by other countries that have drawn inspiration from the Tunisian land law model. Some countries, like Morocco, have regretted this fact. Others, like Cameroon, still regret it today. The law of 1885 has survived for over a century with its qualities and its defects. It has allowed Tunisia to enter the modem era of codification and has prepared its entrance into the economy of the twentieth century. Over the last thirty years, and the trend continues today, a new element has appeared : Tunisia has turned towards tourism and has witnessed extensive urbanization. The stakes are now different : they consist in protecting agricultural land against the space-devouring cities, rather than expanding the surface of agricultural land

La création de deux justices foraines en Tunisie à la fin du xixe siècle

Lorsque le protectorat s’installe dans la régence de Tunis, les autorités françaises veillent à parachever la conquête militaire par une « conquête judiciaire ». La France doit en effet faire accepter le principe de la supériorité de sa juridiction par les autres puissances européennes qui ont dû renoncer aux avantages des Capitulations ottomanes. Aussi va-t-elle s’attacher à désigner des magistrats soigneusement sélectionnés, qui seront mieux rémunérés que leurs collègues en poste en Algérie..

Un peu de technique... Plaidoyer pour la carte perforée

Auzary Bernadette. Un peu de technique... Plaidoyer pour la carte perforée. In: Le médiéviste et l'ordinateur, N°1, printemps 1979. pp. 10-11

Territorialisation transfrontalière entre Brazzaville et Kinshasa : des ressources marchandes à la frontière ressource

Relations between Brazzaville and Kinshasa are caught in a permanent paradox of conflicts and cooperation, from the point of view of both states and populations. They have been studied through the lens of the history of the cities’ construction, of the cultural links between the riverbanks, and by the prism of specific cross-border trade channels. This article tackles this paradox with a geographical approach, by studying the spatial differentiation of exchanges between the two cities along the riverbanks. It combines a historical approach to the colonial and post-colonial production of river spaces with a field survey carried out in Brazzaville in 2022 at various river crossing points, and scrutinizes diverse places of crossing at an intra-urban scale, emphasizing the tangible exercise of spatially differentiated power. It combines political geography, which sees territory as shaped by the outcome of the exercise of power and by various power dynamics, with border studies. Drawing initially upon former historical and geographical studies, the article illustrates how the colonial division of territory not only delineated the border but also demarcated power centers from marginal spaces along the riverbanks, where the border is notably porous. It proposes a typology of cross-border spaces in Brazzaville, based on observations and interviews carried out on the banks of the river. Concretely, the exercise of power involves the material infrastructure allowing navigation and the practices of state agents, which are the base of the typology. These differences in the exercise of power are analyzed in terms of spatial distribution of the response to the needs of the State to maintain itself : the assertion of its sovereignty and control of its border and the capacity of the population to meet its basic needs. A “topological” rather than “topographic” approach to power allows understanding the coexistence of central and marginal power structures within the same urban space. The paradox of territorialization arises from the spatially differentiated exercise of state power, creating spaces where the border is more or less tangible, exploitable, and leads to an alternative territorialization surpassing the limit between neighboring sovereignties. The unique spatial configuration of Brazzaville and Kinshasa, two political centers facing each other across the Congo River, allows to understand an exercise of power at the border that is highly contrasting at an intra-urban scale. This contrast aids in understanding the historical paradox of recurring conflicts between public authorities and the sustained cooperation among populations. The interplay of conflict and cooperation articulates differentially depending on the crossing points and the resources exchanged therein. The border between Brazzaville and Kinshasa provides a unique spatial setup to examine conflicts and cooperation in a post-colonial context, focusing on traded goods as resources that turn the border itself into a spatial resource

Le curé, Pernelle et sa robe...

Que Jean Favier, qui a beaucoup fréquenté au cours de sa carrière d'historien les grands, Philippe le Bel, les puissants (qui maniaient l'or et les épices) ou les poètes, François Villon, me permette de lui offrir un témoignage de la vie des humbles, des petits, des obscurs qui vivaient dans le Paris du Moyen Âge qu'il a su nous rendre si familier Paris au XVe siècle. Un procès qui se déroule devant le parlement de Paris entre 1373 et 1378 va nous conter les tribulations d'un Parisien aux pri..

La justice française et le droit pendant le protectorat en Tunisie

« L’histoire de la justice est une histoire jeune », comme l’a récemment noté un historien du droit dans une étude sur l’histoire de la justice qui fait à présent référence. Et, lorsqu’on observe les publications récentes dans ce champ disciplinaire, les traits principaux qui s’en dégagent sont bien caractéristiques de la jeunesse. Science ou savoir jeune, l’histoire de la justice a les défauts de ses qualités : de la jeunesse, on attend qu’elle soit prolifique et on est prêt à accepter qu’el..

La justice française et le droit pendant le protectorat en Tunisie

Longtemps restées, pour l’essentiel, l’apanage des historiens du droit et des chartistes, les archives judiciaires suscitent désormais un intérêt bien au-delà de ces cercles spécialisés, en particulier chez les historiens en quête de nouveaux objets. Et d’Europe les travaux s’étendent désormais aussi aux colonies et aux protectorats, dont les archives sont progressivement accessibles. La présente étude sur La justice française et le droit pendant le protectorat en Tunisie s’inscrit dans ce mo..