Fed bread and biscuits, monkeys are eating less fruit, says study

Like to feed monkeys while you're exploring forests or visiting places of worship? Your act of kindness towards a primate can cause major changes in the forest food web and the ecosystem. A recent study by Asmita Sengupta from the National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS) and her team has found that the human act has reduced the fruit intake of monkeys (which they get from trees) by half. Tourists usually feed biscuits, bread and other eatables to the animals. The study was conducted to understand the effects of provisioning - providing of extra food - by humans on the rhesus macaque, a species of monkey . Researchers say these monkeys are an important seed disperser for many fruit varieties in forests and feeding by humans is prov ing to be dangerous to such natural processes. This study, conducted at the Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal, has found that provisioning has an adverse effect on seed dispersal and frugivory (fruit-eating) behaviour of rhesus macaques. "Due to the smaller daily ranges of macaques during the provisioned period, seeds didn't get dispersed (through their faeces) as far as they would have if there had been no provisioning. Moreover, a large number of seeds was deposited on motorable roads, not conducive for ger mination. This can bring about changes in plant dy namics as well as gene flow in forests," said Sengupta

Of concern yet?: Distribution and conservation status of the bonnet macaque Macacaradiata in Goa, India

The bonnet macaque Macaca radiata, endemic to peninsular India, is typically ignored in conservation initiatives as it is considered a common species, ubiquitously present across its distribution. Recent studies in southern India, however, report drastic declines in its populations. From March to May, 2012, we carried out a study to investigate its conservation status at the northern end of its range, in the state of Goa on the western coast of India. We recorded bonnet macaques in less than 40% of the locations we visited where they had previously been reported, and found that local residents living in close association with bonnet macaque populations were largely intolerant of the species’ presence. Surveys and studies to monitor the population dynamics of such ‘common’ species as the bonnet macaque are urgently needed so that we can be better informed about their actual conservation status

Feeding macaques affects forests

Among the most common experiences in the country, when on a pilgrimage or a trip through the forests and hills, is the sight of rhesus macaque opportunistically lined up for a treat or two from passing tourists. Videos abound of these clever primates stealing picnic snacks or scurrying around for food thrown by visitors. However, a study on primate-man interaction shows that this “benign act” by tourists is increasingly affecting the ecology of the region. Researchers from the School of Natural Sciences and Engineering, National Institute of Advanced Studies in Bengaluru studied the effects of provisioning food to the rhesus macaques on the forests of Buxa Tiger Reserve (BTR) in West Bengal. In a previous study at the same reserve, Asmita Sengupta, Kim R. McConkey, and Sindhu Radhakrishna from the institute had observed the effects of seed dispersal due to a troop of rhesus macaques. Nearly 50 per cent of the seeds handled by these primates had germinated

High dilutions of two drugs induce changes in crystal water structure of lactose as revealed by thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry

Ultra-high dilutions (UHD) of drugs used in homeopathy are preserved in sugars. How do solid sugars assimilate characteristics of UHDs? This study attempts to answer this question. The three UHDs of Acid fluoric, Acid nitric, and ethanol were mixed with lactose at 1 µL/g and analyzed by thermogravimetry (TG) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to see any change in their crystal water. TG results show a mass loss of 4.9% at 146.8C for Acid fluoric 30 cH, of 7.1% at 146.6C for Acid nitric 30 cH, and5.1% at 146.5C for ethanol. DSC results show that the change in enthalpy for Acid fluoric 30 cH is 157.3 J/g at 153.8C, that for Acid nit 30 cH is 122.8 J/g at 148.3C, and that for ethanol is 154.9 J/g at 156.3C. Bound water in lactose crystals and corresponding enthalpies vary markedly in the three drugs tested. This indicates that the number of hydrogen bonds and their bond strength vary inbound water of medicated lactose crystals

Cannabis as homeopathic medicine in extreme dilutions: Thermal analysis for their differentiation and action on a protein

506-513Cannabis indica and C. sativa have been used in homeopathy in extreme dilutions, called potencies, for therapeutic purposes since 1841. The purpose of the present study is to see whether Cannabis dilutions have specific levels of free water molecules which characterize other homeopathic potencies. The second objective is to see whether Cannabis mother tincture (MT) and potencies act on the binding sites of a protein. The three potencies 8, 14 and 32 cH were prepared from Cannabis mother tincture (MT) by successive dilution followed by succussion in 8, 14 and 32 steps, respectively. The 3 potencies of diluent medium 90% EtOH were similarly prepared. Each potency was analysed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to determine the free water level in it. The drug potencies and unpotentised EtOH were tested for their binding reaction with a protein human serum albumin (HSA) by isothermal calorimetry (ITC). MTs and the potencies differ from each other and also from water control and EtOH with respect to free water content as revealed by DSC. MTs, their potencies and EtOH bind to HSA showing difference in thermodynamic parameters in terms of stoichiometry, binding constant, change in enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy. Potencies may initiate their individual effect through binding with a protein thereby leading to subsequent biochemical events inside the cell

Cannabis as homeopathic medicine in extreme dilutions: Thermal analysis for their differentiation and action on a protein

Cannabis indica and C. sativa have been used in homeopathy in extreme dilutions, called potencies, for therapeutic purposes since 1841. The purpose of the present study is to see whether Cannabis dilutions have specific levels of free water molecules which characterize other homeopathic potencies. The second objective is to see whether Cannabis mother tincture (MT) and potencies act on the binding sites of a protein. The three potencies 8, 14 and 32 cH were prepared from Cannabis mother tincture (MT) by successive dilution followed by succussion in 8, 14 and 32 steps, respectively. The 3 potencies of diluent medium 90% EtOH were similarly prepared. Each potency was analysed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to determine the free water level in it. The drug potencies and unpotentised EtOH were tested for their binding reaction with a protein human serum albumin (HSA) by isothermal calorimetry (ITC). MTs and the potencies differ from each other and also from water control and EtOH with respect to free water content as revealed by DSC. MTs, their potencies and EtOH bind to HSA showing difference in thermodynamic parameters in terms of stoichiometry, binding constant, change in enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy. Potencies may initiate their individual effect through binding with a protein thereby leading to subsequent biochemical events inside the cell

Primates, Provisioning and Plants: Impacts of Human Cultural Behaviours on Primate Ecological Functions

Human provisioning of wildlife with food is a widespread global practice that occurs in multiple socio-cultural circumstances. Provisioning may indirectly alter ecosystem functioning through changes in the eco-ethology of animals, but few studies have quantified this aspect. Provisioning of primates by humans is known to impact their activity budgets, diets and ranging patterns. Primates are also keystone species in tropical forests through their role as seed dispersers; yet there is no information on how provisioning might affect primate ecological functions. The rhesus macaque is a major human-commensal species but is also an important seed disperser in the wild. In this study, we investigated the potential impacts of provisioning on the role of rhesus macaques as seed dispersers in the Buxa Tiger Reserve, India. We studied a troop of macaques which were provisioned for a part of the year and were dependent on natural resources for the rest. We observed feeding behaviour, seed handling techniques and ranging patterns of the macaques and monitored availability of wild fruits. Irrespective of fruit availability, frugivory and seed dispersal activities decreased when the macaques were provisioned. Provisioned macaques also had shortened daily ranges implying shorter dispersal distances. Finally, during provisioning periods, seeds were deposited on tarmac roads that were unconducive for germination. Provisioning promotes human-primate conflict, as commensal primates are often involved in aggressive encounters with humans over resources, leading to negative consequences for both parties involved. Preventing or curbing provisioning is not an easy task as feeding wild animals is a socio-cultural tradition across much of South and South-East Asia, including India. We recommend the initiation of literacy programmes that educate lay citizens about the ill-effects of provisioning and strongly caution them against the practice

Seed dispersal by Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta)

Common species, defined as those which are widely distributed and/or abundant, tend to be ignored in terms of their conservation and ecological significance. The general understanding is that they are too widespread to be in any danger of extinction and that, in comparison to rare taxa, they do not fulfill critical or specialized ecosystem functions. Very few studies though have actually examined the ecological functions of common species. A text book example of a common species, the rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, has been intensively studied for many biological aspects, yet nothing is known about its role in maintaining ecosystem structure and functions. In this study, I investigated the role of rhesus macaques in fulfilling an important ecosystem function, namely seed dispersal. Seed dispersal is a critical ecological process that drives tropical forest recruitment and the recolonization and restoration of degraded habitats. Although many primate species are considered important seed dispersers, common macaque species, including the rhesus macaque, have been traditionally undervalued in this regard. However, land use changes resulting in loss of forest cover have led to the loss of large numbers of primate populations globally. In such a scenario, the importance of ecologically resilient primate species, characterized by dietary flexibility and ability to thrive in a variety of habitats, increases manifold. It has, in fact, been suggested that in many parts of tropical and subtropical Asia, where forests are fragmented or native mammal fauna has gone extinct, disturbance‐tolerant macaques like the rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, the bonnet macaque M. radiata and the long‐tailed macaque M. fascicularis may be the only seed dispersers, especially for the large fruit/seed bearing species. Based on their large group and home range sizes, occasional high levels of frugivory, and dietary flexibility, I predicted that rhesus macaques may be potentially effective seed dispersers. To test my prediction I examined seed dispersal effectiveness in rhesus macaques in terms of (i) number of fruit species dispersed, (ii) rates of seed predation, (iii) seed handling methods and (iv) germination and establishment rates of dispersed seeds. I also investigated how certain ecological and behavioural parameters such as resource availability, fruit trait preference and access to human food subsidies may impact seed dispersal effectiveness in rhesus macaques. Resource availability fluctuates in all ecosystems and the existence of distinct dry and wet seasons regulates the availability of fruits in forests. Studies on rhesus macaque diets have reported extremely variable levels of frugivory. Fruit consumption is often a function of fruit availability in the habitat. Although seasonality in dietary patterns has been noted in rhesus macaques in some studies, levels of frugivory in forest-dwelling rhesus macaques have rarely been studied in relation to fruit availability. Therefore, I examined how seasonal resource availability influences frugivory in rhesus macaques and in turn affects their role as seed dispersers. Primate fruit consumption may be driven by particular fruit characteristics and the latter are generally construed to be adaptations for effective seed dispersal. Hence I also investigated if rhesus macaques show preference for certain fruit species or fruit traits and the implications of this for seed dispersal by rhesus macaques. Throughout history, humans and primates have co-existed in diverse cultures and contexts and provisioning wild primates is a socio-religious tradition in many Asian countries, including India. Provisioned primate troops have been observed to decrease their consumption of natural plant parts, their mean daily and home ranges and spend more time resting and less time feeding and foraging. Since changes in ranging and feeding behavior may bring about changes in the ecological functions of species, the third aspect of my study was to assess how human interference in the form of providing food subsidies to rhesus macaques impacts their role as seed dispersers. I conducted my study July, 2012 to September, 2014 at the Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal, India on two troops of rhesus macaques – Troop C that was wholly dependent on natural resources and Troop D that was provisioned by humans for some months in a year. The methods I used to address my research questions comprised (i) behavioural observations on macaque individuals, (ii) phenological monitoring of tree species, (iii) documentation of fruit and seed traits, (iv) GPS tagging of dispersed seeds and (iv) in situ and ex situ germination experiments. My findings showed that rhesus macaques dispersed 84 % of the 49 species they fed on by spitting or defecation. More than 60% of macaque-handled seeds were deposited outside the tree canopy, 96 % of handled seeds were undamaged and 61 % of the species for which germination tests were performed had enhanced germination. Fifty percent of monitored seeds germinated in situ and 22 % established seedlings. These results attest that rhesus macaques are important seed dispersers in tropical forests. Fruit consumption was positively correlated with fruit availability; the macaques acted as seed dispersers all the year round for a broad range of species. Dietary fruit evenness was negatively correlated with fruit availability. This implies that the macaques showed preference for certain species. In terms of fruit traits, rhesus macaques primarily fed on fruits with juicy-soft pulp and acted as seed predators for those with no discernible pulp. The other preferred fruit traits were soft skins, medium to large seeds and true stone-like seeds. Irrespective of fruit availability, macaque frugivory (and therefore seed dispersal) declined with increasing degree of provisioning. Macaque daily ranges also decreased during provisioning, resulting in shorter dispersal distances. Additionally, macaquehandled seeds were usually deposited on tarmac roads during provisioning periods, thereby precluding seed germination. Wildlife conservation practices are often driven by the risk of species extinction, hence common species are typically overlooked in conservation initiatives. However, although common primate species are highly adaptable, they are not neutral to various anthropogenic pressures such as habitat degradation, forest fragmentation and poaching. The population trend of rhesus macaques is presently unknown but their habitat size is declining rapidly. Due to their commensality, they are also often in conflict with humans and are regarded as pests. The findings of my thesis clearly demonstrate that the rhesus macaque fulfils important ecological functions within its natural habitat and that reduction in rhesus population numbers or even local extinction may result in serious consequences for the ecosystem. Based on the results of my study, I suggest that the regeneration and recruitment of preferred plant species alongside afforestation programmes involving these species may prevent rhesus macaques from gravitating towards human habitations and getting into conflict over shared resources. My study also demonstrates the negative impacts of provisioning on rhesus macaque ecological functions. Preventing or curbing provisioning is however not an easy task as provisioning wild animals is a socio-cultural tradition across much of South and South-East Asia, including India. Hence I recommend the initiation of a nation-wide literacy programme that educates lay citizens about the ill-effects of provisioning and strongly cautions them against the practice. I also advocate the need for rhesus population monitoring programs across the geographic range of the species, so that timely interventions can be made, if required, to ensure that they remain ‘common’ and of ‘least concern’

Influence of Fruit Availability on Fruit Consumption in a Generalist Primate, the Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta

Fluctuations in resource availability occur in all ecosystems. To survive, species must alter their foraging strategies according to the quantity, quality, and distribution of available food. The rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), a commensal primate, is considered a generalist omnivore and very few studies have addressed how its feeding strategies change with respect to resource availability. We examined dietary diversity and frugivory levels in a group of rhesus macaques at the Buxa Tiger Reserve in northern India across one year. Using behavioural observations of diet and phenological monitoring, we found that although rhesus macaques fed on 107 food items including leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, and insects, fruits made up ca. 74% of their diet. Fruit consumption correlated positively with fruit availability, but fruit preference appeared to play an important role; 16% of all the fruit species they fed on accounted for > 50% of all fruit feeding observations. We suggest that afforestation programs involving preferred fruit species at the agricultural land-forest interface would prevent forest groups of rhesus macaques from gravitating toward human habitations and reduce conflict over anthropogenic resources. We further propose that the movement of certain primates in the direction of human habitations may be contingent on resource availability and food preference rather than an inherent propensity to gravitate to anthropogenic areas