12 research outputs found
Production of Furfural from Process-Relevant Biomass-Derived Pentoses in a Biphasic Reaction System
Furfural
is an important fuel precursor which can be converted
to hydrocarbon fuels and fuel intermediates. In this work, the production
of furfural by dehydration of process-relevant pentose rich corn stover
hydrolyzate using a biphasic batch reaction system has been investigated.
Methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) and toluene have been used to extract
furfural and enhance overall furfural yield by limiting its degradation
to humins. The effects of reaction time, temperature, and acid concentration
(H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) on pentose conversion and furfural yield
were investigated. For the dehydration of 8 wt % pentose-rich corn
stover hydrolyzate under optimum reaction conditions, 0.05 M H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, 170 °C for 20 min with MIBK as the solvent,
complete conversion of xylose (98–100%) and a furfural yield
of 80% were obtained. Under these same conditions, except with toluene
as the solvent, the furfural yield was 77%. Additionally, dehydration
of process-relevant pentose rich corn stover hydrolyzate using solid
acid ion-exchange resins under optimum reaction conditions has shown
that Purolite CT275 is as effective as H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> for obtaining furfural yields approaching 80% using a biphasic batch
reaction system. This work has demonstrated that a biphasic reaction
system can be used to process biomass-derived pentose rich sugar hydrolyzates
to furfural in yields approaching 80%
Alkaline Peroxide Delignification of Corn Stover
Selective
biomass fractionation into carbohydrates and lignin is
a key challenge in the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to fuels
and chemicals. In the present study, alkaline hydrogen peroxide (AHP)
pretreatment was investigated to fractionate lignin from polysaccharides
in corn stover (CS), with a particular emphasis on the fate of the
lignin for subsequent valorization. The influence of peroxide loading
on delignification during AHP pretreatment was examined over the range
of 30–500 mg H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>/g dry CS at 50 °C
for 3 h. Mass balances were conducted on the solid and liquid fractions
generated after pretreatment for each of the three primary components,
lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose. AHP pretreatment at 250 mg H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>/g dry CS resulted in the pretreated solids with
more than 80% delignification consequently enriching the carbohydrate
fraction to >90%. Two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (2D-NMR)
spectroscopy of the AHP pretreated residue shows that, under high
peroxide loadings (>250 mg H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>/g dry CS),
most
of the side chain structures were oxidized and the aryl-ether bonds
in lignin were partially cleaved, resulting in significant delignification
of the pretreated residues. Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) analysis
shows that AHP pretreatment effectively depolymerizes CS lignin into
low molecular weight (LMW) lignin fragments in the aqueous fraction.
Imaging of AHP pretreated residues shows a more granular texture and
a clear lamellar pattern in secondary walls, indicative of layers
of varying lignin removal or relocalization. Enzymatic hydrolysis
of this pretreated residue at 20 mg/g of glucan resulted in 90% and
80% yields of glucose and xylose, respectively, after 120 h. Overall,
AHP pretreatment is able to selectively remove more than 80% of the
lignin from biomass in a form that has potential for downstream valorization
processes and enriches the solid pulp into a highly digestible material
Base-Catalyzed Depolymerization of Biorefinery Lignins
Lignocellulosic biorefineries will
produce a substantial pool of
lignin-enriched residues, which are currently slated to be burned
for heat and power. Going forward, however, valorization strategies
for residual solid lignin will be essential to the economic viability
of modern biorefineries. To achieve these strategies, effective lignin
depolymerization processes will be required that can convert specific
lignin-enriched biorefinery substrates into products of sufficient
value and market size. Base-catalyzed depolymerization (BCD) of lignin
using sodium hydroxide and other basic media has been shown to be
an effective depolymerization approach when using technical and isolated
lignins relevant to the pulp and paper industry. To gain insights
in the application of BCD to lignin-rich, biofuels-relevant residues,
here we apply BCD with sodium hydroxide at two catalyst loadings and
temperatures of 270, 300, and 330 °C for 40 min to residual biomass
from typical and emerging biochemical conversion processes. We obtained
mass balances for each fraction from BCD, and characterized the resulting
aqueous and solid residues using gel permeation chromatography, NMR,
and GC–MS. When taken together, these results indicate that
a significant fraction (45–78%) of the starting lignin-rich
material can be depolymerized to low molecular weight, water-soluble
species. The yield of the aqueous soluble fraction depends significantly
on biomass processing method used prior to BCD. Namely, dilute acid
pretreatment results in lower water-soluble yields compared to biomass
processing that involves no acid pretreatment. Also, we find that
the BCD product selectivity can be tuned with temperature to give
higher yields of methoxyphenols at lower temperature, and a higher
relative content of benzenediols with a greater extent of alkylation
on the aromatic rings at higher temperature. Overall, this study shows
that residual, lignin-rich biomass produced from conventional and
emerging biochemical conversion processes can be depolymerized with
sodium hydroxide to produce significant yields of low molecular weight
aromatics that potentially can be upgraded to fuels or chemicals
Influence of Crystal Allomorph and Crystallinity on the Products and Behavior of Cellulose during Fast Pyrolysis
Cellulose is the primary biopolymer
responsible for maintaining
the structural and mechanical integrity of cell walls and, during
the fast pyrolysis of biomass, may be restricting cell wall expansion
and inhibiting phase transitions that would otherwise facilitate efficient
escape of pyrolysis products. Here, we test whether modifications
in two physical properties of cellulose, its crystalline allomorph
and degree of crystallinity, alter its performance during fast pyrolysis.
We show that both crystal allomorph and relative crystallinity of
cellulose impact the slate of primary products produced by fast pyrolysis.
For both cellulose-I and cellulose-II, changes in crystallinity dramatically
impact the fast pyrolysis product portfolio. In both cases, only the
most highly crystalline samples produced vapors dominated by levoglucosan.
Cellulose-III, on the other hand, produces largely the same slate
of products regardless of its relative crystallinity and produced
as much or more levoglucosan at all crystallinity levels compared
to cellulose-I or II. In addition to changes in products, the different
cellulose allomorphs affected the viscoelastic properties of cellulose
during rapid heating. Real-time hot-stage pyrolysis was used to visualize
the transition of the solid material through a molten phase and particle
shrinkage. SEM analysis of the chars revealed additional differences
in viscoelastic properties and molten phase behavior impacted by cellulose
crystallinity and allomorph. Regardless of relative crystallinity,
the cellulose-III samples displayed the most obvious evidence of having
transitioned through a molten phase
Dependence of Sum Frequency Generation (SFG) Spectral Features on the Mesoscale Arrangement of SFG-Active Crystalline Domains Interspersed in SFG-Inactive Matrix: A Case Study with Cellulose in Uniaxially Aligned Control Samples and Alkali-Treated Secondary Cell Walls of Plants
Vibrational
sum frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy can selectively
detect not only molecules at two-dimensional (2D) interfaces but also
noncentrosymmetric domains interspersed in amorphous three-dimensional
(3D) matrixes. However, the SFG analysis of 3D systems is more complicated
than 2D systems because more variables are involved. One such variable
is the distance between SFG-active domains in SFG-inactive matrixes.
In this study, we fabricated control samples in which SFG-active cellulose
crystals were uniaxially aligned in an amorphous matrix. Assuming
uniform separation distances between cellulose crystals, the relative
intensities of alkyl (CH) and hydroxyl (OH) SFG peaks of cellulose
could be related to the intercrystallite distance. The experimentally
measured CH/OH intensity ratio as a function of the intercrystallite
distance could be explained reasonably well with a model constructed
using the theoretically calculated hyperpolarizabilities of cellulose
and the symmetry cancellation principle of dipoles antiparallel to
each other. This comparison revealed physical insights into the intercrystallite
distance dependence of the CH/OH SFG intensity ratio of cellulose,
which can be used to interpret the SFG spectral features of plant
cell walls in terms of mesoscale packing of cellulose microfibrils
Alkaline Pretreatment of Corn Stover: Bench-Scale Fractionation and Stream Characterization
Biomass pretreatment generally aims to increase accessibility to
plant cell wall polysaccharides for carbohydrate-active enzymes to
produce sugars for biological or catalytic upgrading to ethanol or
advanced biofuels. Significant research has been conducted on a suite
of pretreatment processes for bioethanol processes. An alternative
option, which has received less attention in the biofuels community,
is the use of alkaline pretreatment for the partial depolymerization
of lignin from intact biomass. A known issue with alkaline pretreatment
is the loss of polysaccharides from peeling reactions, but this loss
can be mitigated with anthraquinone, as commonly practiced in pulping.
Here, we conduct a comprehensive bench-scale evaluation of alkaline
pretreatment using corn stover at temperatures of 100, 130, and 160
°C and sodium hydroxide loadings from 35 to 660 mg NaOH/g dry
biomass with anthraquinone. Compositional analysis is conducted on
the starting material and residual solids after pretreatment, and
mass balance is inferred in the liquor by difference. The residual
solids after alkaline pretreatment are characterized for crystallinity
and imaged by scanning and transmission electron microscopy to reveal
the physical changes in the carbohydrate portions of the biomass remaining
after pretreatment, which demonstrate dramatic modifications to biomass
cell wall architecture with lignin removal but rather insignificant
changes in cellulose crystallinity. Our results show that alkaline
pretreatment at relatively mild conditions is able to remove substantial
amounts of lignin from biomass. Going forward, to be an economically
feasibile process, technologies will be required to upgrade the resulting
lignin-rich liquor stream
Ammonia Pretreatment of Corn Stover Enables Facile Lignin Extraction
Thermochemical pretreatment
of lignocellulose is often employed
to render polysaccharides more digestible by carbohydrate-active enzymes
to maximize sugar yields. The fate of lignin during pretreatment,
however, is highly dependent on the chemistry employed and must be
considered in cases where lignin valorization is targeted alongside
sugar conversionî—¸an important feature of future biorefinery
development. Here, a two-step process is demonstrated in which anhydrous
ammonia (AA) pretreatment is followed by mild NaOH extraction on corn
stover to solubilize and fractionate lignin. As known, AA pretreatment
simultaneously alters the structure of cellulose with enhanced digestibility
while redistributing lignin. The AA-pretreated residue is then extracted
with dilute NaOH at mild conditions to maximize lignin separation,
resulting in a digestible carbohydrate-rich solid fraction and a solubilized
lignin stream. Lignin removal of more than 65% with over 84% carbohydrate
retention is achieved after mild NaOH extraction of AA-pretreated
corn stover with 0.1 M NaOH at 25 °C. Two-dimensional nuclear
magnetic resonance (2D-NMR) spectroscopy of the AA-pretreated residue
shows that ammonolysis of ester bonds occurs to partially liberate
hydroxycinnamic acids, and the AA-pretreated/NaOH-extracted residue
exhibits a global reduction of all lignin moieties caused by reduced
lignin content. A significant reduction (∼70%) in the weight-average
molecular weight (<i>M</i><sub>w</sub>) of extracted lignin
is also achieved. Imaging of AA-pretreated/NaOH extracted residues show extensive delamination and disappearance
of coalesced lignin globules from within the secondary cell walls.
Glycome profiling analyses demonstrates ultrastructural level cell
wall modifications induced by AA pretreatment and NaOH extraction,
resulting in enhanced extractability of hemicellulosic glycans, indicating
enhanced polysaccharide accessibility. The glucose and xylose yields
from enzymatic hydrolysis of AA-pretreated/NaOH-extracted corn stover
were higher by ∼80% and ∼60%, respectively, compared
to untreated corn stover at 1% solids loadings. For digestions at
20% solids, a benefit of NaOH extraction is realized in achieving
∼150 g/L of total monomeric sugars (glucose, xylose, and arabinose)
in the enzymatic hydrolysates from AA-pretreated/NaOH-extracted corn
stover. Overall, this process enables facile lignin extraction in
tandem with a leading thermochemical pretreatment approach, demonstrating
excellent retention of highly digestible polysaccharides in the solid
phase and a highly depolymerized, soluble lignin-rich stream
Investigation of Xylose Reversion Reactions That Can Occur during Dilute Acid Pretreatment
Xylose
reversion reactions to form xylooligomers represent a potentially
important mechanism of sugar loss during dilute acid pretreatment
of biomass. We have conducted a study to identify the products that
result from these reactions and to determine the kinetics of their
formation. A major obstacle is that there are few commercial standards
available for xylose disaccharides, which are essential for the identification
and quantification of the xylose reversion products formed during
these reactions. To overcome this obstacle, we have used GC/MS and
NMR analysis of xylose disaccharides isolated by preparative HPLC
to identify the reaction products. At the xylose concentration we
used (300 g L<sup>–1</sup>), only xylose disaccharides were
observed. As with glucose reversion reactions [Pilath, H. M.; et al. <i>J. Agric. Food Chem</i>. <b>2010</b>, <i>58</i>, 6131], the disaccharides contained linkages that involved the anomeric
carbon atom of one of the sugar monomers. Eight out of the nine possible
disaccharides, including alpha and beta anomers, were observed. Whereas
the GC/MS allowed for the identification of the linkages, NMR was
needed to distinguish between the α and β isomers of the
disaccharides. The kinetics of combined xylose disaccharide formation
was measured using HPLC. Arrhenius parameters for the rates of disaccharide
formation were calculated by fitting the data to a simple model
Evaluation of Clean Fractionation Pretreatment for the Production of Renewable Fuels and Chemicals from Corn Stover
Organosolv
fractionation processes aim to separate the primary
biopolymers in lignocellulosic biomass to enable more selective deconstruction
and upgrading approaches for the isolated components. Clean fractionation
(CF) is a particularly effective organsolv process that was originally
applied to woody feedstocks. The original CF pretreatment employed
methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK), ethanol, and water with sulfuric acid
as a catalyst at temperatures ranging from 120 to 160 °C. Understanding
the feasibility and applicability of organosolv processes for industrial
use requires mass balances on the primary polymers in biomass, detailed
understanding of the physical and chemical characteristics of the
fractionated components, and viable upgrading processes for each fraction.
Here, we apply two CF approaches to corn stover, one with MIBK/ethanol/water
and acid and the other with MIBK/acetone/water and acid, with the
aim of understanding if these fractionation methods are feasible for
industrial application. We quantify the full mass balances on the
resulting solid, organic, and aqueous fractions and apply multiple
analytical methods to characterize the three fractions. Total mass
yields of the cellulose-enriched, hemicellulose-enriched, and lignin-enriched
fractions are near mass closure in most cases. For corn stover, the
MIBK/acetone/water CF solvent system is more effective relative to
the original CF method based on the enhanced fractionation susceptibility
of the aqueous and organic phases and the lower molecular weight distribution
of the lignin-enriched fractions. Overall, this work reports component
mass balances for the fractionation of corn stover, providing key
inputs for detailed evaluation of CF processes based on bench-scale
data
MOESM1 of An iterative computational design approach to increase the thermal endurance of a mesophilic enzyme
Additional file 1. Additional figures and tables