An historical analysis of multifaith cooperation and civilisation building in India during Muslim rule

India has always been a multi-cultural, multi-racial and multi-religious melting pot of diverse civilizations since ancient times, readily absorbing diverse beliefs, customs, religions and philosophies, not viewing them as existential ‘problems’ like modern nations but rather glorying in the everlasting unity of the diverse elements that comprise India’s multifarious and eclectic beauty. Islam was the third major cultural development in India (after Hinduism and Buddhism), initially arriving with Arab trading communities around the coastal ports and later with the Muslim conquest of Sind, which set the scene for successive Islamic polities throughout India, whereby foreign and indigenous Muslim rulers adapted the ethics and laws of Islam to the welfare of their subjects, granting minorities (and Hindu-Buddhist majorities in many cases) the freedom to practice their religions, which enriched religious, cultural and scientific life in the Subcontinent and led to a massive Indian contribution to Islam itself. This paper sheds light on the attitudes and policies of Muslim rulers in their engagement with the diverse religious groups in the country and examines the challenges in the execution of multifaith cooperation in building a harmonious and sustainable civilization based on equality and justice. Multifiath relationships embody the notion of mutual understanding and respect for the beliefs and practices of others. In the modern globalised world with its increasing political and economic dissension, peaceful coexistence among peoples of different religious beliefs can prove to be the way forward for peace and prosperity and became a role model for contemporary world. The glorious past of Indian multifaith cooperation under historical Muslim governments is a glittering example of the potential of genuinely inclusive cultural and religious cooperation, as manifest in the unique Ganga-Jamuni Tehzib (Ganges-Jamuna culture), a synergy of Hindu-Muslim cultural elements that flourishes in the regions of Awadh and southern India

Indian Muslims’ support for Ottoman Pan-Islamism: the case of Shibli Nu’mani

Following their violent suppression of the Indian Revolution of 1857, the British founded and consolidated their secular empire in the Indian Subcontinent, which marginalized and bypassed religion as far as possible, particularly Islam, which had been the official religion of the Mughal ancien régime. Contemporaneous Ottoman efforts to counter European imperialism led to Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s (r. 1876-1909) policy of pan-Islamism, particularly the call for Islamic unity against the Russian aggression against Turkey in 1877. It was at this critical juncture that some Indian Muslim scholars gallantly volunteered to counter this threat, and to preserve the Islamic faith and heritage worldwide, despite the severe problems faced by the Muslims in India itself. This study highlights the role of an eminent scholar in this movement, namely Allama Shibli Nu’mani (1857-1914), who in 1914 conceived the idea of founding the world-famous Islamic research institute Darul Musannefin Shibli Academy in his home town of Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh, India. Shibli was very active and instrumental in collecting donations from the wealthy landowners (zamindars) among the Muslim elite in his hometown of Azamgarh for the Ottoman cause, raising 3,000 rupees, which was handed to Husain Hasib Afendi, the Ottoman Consul in Bombay in 1877. Furthermore, his eloquent poetry rallied Muslims across India to support the valour and heroism displayed in the jihad by Ghazi Usman Pasha against the Russians. Shibli travelled to Istanbul in 1892 and met with the Pasha, on whose efforts Tamgha-i Majidi (gold medal) was granted to Shibli on 13th Muharram, 1310/7th August, 1892. This article is based on Shibli’s major works in Urdu, particularly his arousing eulogies (qasaid), Turkish archival reports, newspapers and magazines, and secondary sources in Urdu and English

Unani methods of cure in the Indian subcontinent: an analytical study

The history of medicine is bound with the history of civilization, representing the complex interactions of human communities, geography and the environment over time. South Asia has always been a vibrant melting pot of interactions between different peoples. Unani (‘Greek’) medicine is based on ancient Hellenic thought (via its interactions with Babylonian, Egyptian, Indian and Persian knowledge).Tibb-i-Unani is Arabic for ‘Greek medicine’, which became Unani as practised in the Indian Subcontinent, where it was developed and refined through systematic experimentation by renowned scholars. Islamic physicians tested Indian traditional medicines using clinical trials, as a result of which they incorporated a number of indigenous medicines in their own system, advancing and enriching its treasures. The basic Unani framework is timeless, based on human action and intrinsic causes. This paper highlights the subtler and perhaps more important aspects of classical Indian Unani medicine that contributed to the development of the entire body of scientific knowledge. Through an analysis of socio-cultural and historical context, the paper concludes that the contribution of Unani medicine in India lies in:(a) preserving the ancient Greek tradition of medicine; and (b) safeguarding and advancing utilitarian medical science and treatment into the early modern period

Bureaucracy: Max Weber’s concept and its application to Pakistan

To investigate Max Weber’s concept of bureaucracy and its relevance to Pakistan’s civil service, this study explains the system of governance followed in different nations, its function, and bureaucratic formulations in the well-managed and administered state. The paper analyzes reasons for the poor performance of Pakistani public service provision. International development doctrines pertaining to governance are based on accountable to the governments and effective bureaucracy. This study explores the formation of the Pakistani state and civil service and its role in the implementation of government policies. Irrespective of the system of governance followed across different nations, the presence, and functioning of a bureaucratic set-up is crucial to manage and administer the state. However, in Pakistan there has been an egregious failure of the bureaucratic set-up to achieve this vision. This study explores the reasons why based on Weberian sociological theory affirming that the main characteristic of bureaucracy is espirit de corps, doing things for the good of the institution (i.e., civil service) even if goes against the public interest. This study analyzes such orientation in the context of a major developing state, Pakistan. The essential principal function of bureaucracy is to honestly and sincerely implement the government policies on behalf of the people. The government provides representation of the national interest, mainly when democratically elected, while the bureaucracy provides skills and know-how; the latter is liable to the former, but often not directly to the public. Thus, bureaucrats are usually known as “civil servants”, who provide continuity in governance and daily life, despite the vagaries of changes in government. This is a qualitative research entirely based on literature survey from library data collected from books and articles

The Taj: an architectural marvel of an epitome of love?

On Saturday 7th July 2007, the New Seven Wonders Foundation, Switzerland, in its new ranking, again declared the Taj Mahal to be one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The Taj Mahal is not just an architectural feat and an icon of luminous splendour, but an epitome of enormous love as well. The Mughal Emperor Shahjahan (1592-1666) built the Taj Mahal, the fabulous mausoleum(rauza), in memory of his beloved queen Mumtaz Mahal (1593-1631). There is perhaps no better and grander monument built in the history of human civilization dedicated to love. The contemporary Mughal sources refer to this marvel as rauza-i-munavvara(‘the illumined tomb’); the Taj Mahal of Agra was originally called Taj Bibi-ka-Rauza.It is believed that the name ‘Taj Mahal’has been derived from the name of Mumtaz Mahal (‘Crown Palace’). The pristine purity of the white marble, the exquisite ornamentation, use of precious gemstones and its picturesque location all make Taj Mahal a marvel of art. Standing majestically at the southern bank on the River Yamuna, it is synonymous with love and beauty. This paper highlights the architectural design and beauty of the Taj, and Shahjahan’s dedicated love for his beloved wife that led to its constructio

Islamic Science in the late Abbasid (945-1258)

Islamic knowledge during the Middle Ages is well known, integrating natural sciences, mathematics, theology and philosophy, as Muslims studied and learned from others’ expertise and civilizations as well as producing important original works. The Abbasid-era contribution of Muslims to the individual disciplines of science such as medicine, mathematics, astronomy, geometry, geology, mineralogy, chemistry, philosophy, architecture and trigonometry are particularly remarkable in the history of Islamic civilization. This paper highlights those aspects of Muslims’ contribution to the scientific body of knowledge that are subtle and perhaps more important to the development of science as a whole. They examined critically, collated, corrected and significantly enriched major texts of Greek science and philosophy. The translation phase of Muslim scientific activity (from Greek) was undertaken during the early Abbasid period, while the later Abbasid period witnessed the most substantial original contributions of Muslim scientists to civilization, which was ongoing despite the political weakness of the later Abbasids, and the turbulence of west and central Asia during that period. Through an analysis of socio-cultural and historical contexts, this paper concludes that the contribution of Muslim scientists during the late Abbasid period to lay (a) in contributing innovative knowledge and research to the body of the sciences; and (b) in bringing to the knowledge of Europe their own researches and the works of Indian men of science, especially in mathematics, astronomy and medicine. Based mainly on Arabic, Persian, Urdu and English sources, the study focuses on the intellectual legacy of the Muslims, their interest in the progress of science and philosophy and the impact of Muslim science on modern scientific heritage. Keywords: Abbasids, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, geometry, geology, mineralogy, chemistry, philosophy, Islamic civilizatio

The contribution of Muslims to science during the Middle Abbasid Period (750-945)

A history of Muslims’ contribution to present-day science and technology is the exploration of the missing account of their glorious past. Muslims integrated science, theology, and philosophy as they were urged to study, acquire knowledge, and learn from others' expertise and civilization. The significance of this study lies not in recounting the specific contribution of Muslims to the individual disciplines of science such as medicine, mathematics, astronomy, geometry, geology, mineralogy, chemistry, philosophy and architecture, and trigonometry. Those accounts though greatly important in their own right have been the central focus of a number of works. This paper highlights those aspects of Muslims’ contribution to scientific body of knowledge that are subtle and perhaps more important to the development of the entire body of the scientific knowledge. Through an analysis of socio-cultural and historical context, the paper concludes that the contribution of Muslim scientist lies in (a) bringing to light the work of ancient Greek scholars in the field of science, and (b) bringing to the knowledge of Europe the works of Indian men of science, especially in mathematics, astronomy and medicine

The civilizational role of Islam in the Indian subcontinent: The Delhi sultanate

Muslim presence was manifest in the coastal regions of Southern India from the earliest days of Islam, as evidenced by the establishment of Arab trading settlements, with minor political impact prior to the conquests in Northern India from the beginning of the 8th century, which solidified the influence of Islam leading to tangible political and socio-cultural impacts in the region. The history of India furnishes an amazing picture of the syntheses of many divergent cultural trends which were gradually transformed by a process of mutual adjustment and assimilation. Islam played a significant role in this by contributing to India’s multi-cultural and multi-religious ethos, embedding the subcontinent in the Arab-Islamic maritime civilization, stretching from southern Africa to China, particularly in connecting Africa as well as the great Turkic empires of Central Asia. It offers a pertinent example of the interaction of human minds and the effects of cultural and civilizational contacts on indigenous customs, religion, literature and arts. This paper examines the impact of Islam in the Indian Peninsula from three different angles: its political predominance, its intellectual and cultural impact, and finally, its influence on art and architecture. Based mainly on Arabic and Persian sources, the article focuses on the intellectual legacy, achievements and the role that the Indian Muslims played in the Indian subcontinent during the Delhi Sultanate, the first major Islamic political authority to govern large parts of South Asia

Charged Scalar Pair Production in Strong-Field Photon-Photon Interaction

Following the pioneering work of H. Reiss [1], we provide a covariant calculation of the charged scalar particle pair production. The calculation is facilitated by the use of two-dimensional Bessel functions and light-font coordinates.Comment: 8 page