The problem with low-prevalence of bullying

Publisher's version (útgefin grein)This paper tests the hypothesis of whether being bullied in an environment where bullying is infrequent decreases adolescents’ life satisfaction. Analyses were based on the international standard questionnaire from the 2005/2006 Health Behaviour in School-aged Children study (HBSC). The sample included answers from 183,736 children in 35 Western, industrialized countries. Our results show that the negative effects of being bullied on the life satisfaction of individuals are stronger in schools and countries where bullying is less frequent. We therefore conclude that the prevalence of bullying in the students’ surroundings may act as a mediating variable explaining the relationship between bullying and life satisfaction.The study is supported by a grant from the University of Akureyri Research Fund.Peer Reviewe

Adolescent alcohol and cannabis use in Iceland 1995-2015

Introduction. Over the past two decades, alcohol consumption of Icelandic adolescents has decreased dramatically. The aim of this study was to quantify the extent of this reduction and compare it with the trend in cannabis use over a 20 year period and to identify possible explanations. Methods. We used data from the Icelandic participants to the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs study (collected via paper-and-pencil questionnaires in classrooms). The sample included all students in the 10th grade (54–89% response rate). Results. The percentage of participants who had never used alcohol during their lifetime rose from 20.8% in 1995 to 65.5% in 2015. Similarly, there was a decline in the proportion of students who had consumed alcohol 40 times or more, from 13.7% to 2.8%. During the same period, the number of students who had never used cannabis rose from 90.2% to 92.0%. In contrast, we found a small, but statistically significant, increase in the prevalence of those who had used cannabis 40 times or more, from 0.7% in 1995 to 2.3% in 2015. Parental monitoring increased markedly between 1995 and 2015,but availability of alcohol decreased. Perceived access to cannabis and youth attitudes towards substance use remained unchanged. Discussion. Although Iceland has enjoyed success in lowering alcohol use among adolescents over the past decades, and somewhat fewer claim to have ever tried cannabis, there has been a threefold increase among heavy users of cannabis. Increased parental monitoring and decreased availability of alcohol explain some of the changes seen.Embætti landlæknis (Icelandic Directorate of Health) KEA Háskólinn á Akureyri (University of Akureyri)Peer Reviewe

The impact of school bullying on adolescent migration expectations in Iceland

Abstract Adolescent migration expectations are shaped by various background characteristics, social relations, and lifestyle considerations. However, the impact of negative social experiences in adolescent society on migration expectations received limited attention. Research on the social consequences of school bullying has nevertheless demonstrated that bullying often leads to social withdrawal and place avoidance. In this study, we examine the potential effects of being bullied in school on adolescent migration expectations in rural, exurban, and urban communities in Iceland. We find adolescents who are regularly bullied to be about twice as likely to expect to move within the country or abroad. Interestingly, there are no significant differences across the rural?urban continuum in this respect. The results are discussed in the context of prior research on migration intentions and the social consequences of bullying

Building knowledge of adolescent mental health in the Nordic countries

Adolescence is an important developmental period. Young people face many pressures and challenges, including growing academic expectations, changing social relationships with family and peers, and the physical and emotional changes associated with maturation. Mental health is a broad concept, including positive mental health, mental health problems and psychiatric diseases. This introductory paper addresses the issue of positive mental health, and how existing data from the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children study (HBSC) may be used to deepen our knowledge of developments in mental health among adolescents in the Nordic countries.   The Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children study is a WHO collaborative cross-national study that now includes 48 countries, collecting data every four years from 1984 to 2018 on health, well-being, health behaviour and social environments. Data collection is carried out in school classes via self-completion of questionnaires. An asset of the study is that the HBSC focuses on understanding young people’s health in their social context at family, peer, school, neighbourhood, and country levels. The investment in the HBSC study gives unique opportunities for high-quality research and monitoring in the Nordic countries.   The on-going Nordic research collaboration on positive mental health among adolescents uses the HBSC study as the research infrastructure for analysing trends as well as collecting new data on positive mental health. This special issue reports on trends when positive perspectives have been guiding the analysis of available data. The present research explores the potential of Nordic collaboration and comparative studies of school-aged children in the Nordic countries.</p

Prevalence of age-related macular degeneration in old persons: Age, Gene/environment Susceptibility Reykjavik Study.

To access publisher full text version of this article. Please click on the hyperlink in Additional Links field.PURPOSE: To describe the prevalence and signs of early and late age-related macular degeneration (AMD) in an old cohort. DESIGN: Population-based cohort study. PARTICIPANTS: We included 5272 persons aged ≥66 years, randomly sampled from the Reykjavik area. METHODS: Fundus images were taken through dilated pupils using a 45-degree digital camera and graded for drusen size, type, area, increased retinal pigment, retinal pigment epithelial depigmentation, neovascular lesions, and geographic atrophy (GA) using the modified Wisconsin Age-Related Maculopathy Grading System. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Age-related macular degeneration in an elderly cohort. RESULTS: The mean age of participants was 76 years. The prevalence of early AMD was 12.4% (95% confidence interval [CI], 11.0-13.9) for those aged 66 to 74 years and 36% (95% CI, 30.9-41.1) for those aged ≥85 years. The prevalence of exudative AMD was 3.3% (95% CI, 2.8-3.8). The prevalence of pure GA was 2.4% (95% CI, 2.0-2.8). The highest prevalence of late AMD was among those aged ≥85 years: 11.4% (95% CI, 8.2-14.5) for exudative AMD and 7.6% (95% CI, 4.8-10.4) for pure GA. CONCLUSIONS: Persons aged ≥85 years have a 10-fold higher prevalence of late AMD than those aged 70 to 74 years. The high prevalence of late AMD in the oldest age group and expected increase of elderly people in the western world in coming years call for improved preventive measures and novel treatments.National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Ageing and the National Eye Institute Z01-EY00401 N01-AG-1-2100 IHA Icelandic Parliament University of Icelan

Transplanting embryonic stem cells onto damaged human corneal endothelium

AIM To investigate whether human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) could be made to attach, grow and differentiate on a human Descemet’s membrane (DM). METHODS Spontaneously differentiated hESCs were transferred onto a human corneal button with the endothelial layer removed using ocular sticks. The cells were cultured on a DM for up to 15 d. The genetically engineered hESC line expressed green fluorescent protein, which facilitated identification during the culture experiments, tissue preparation, and analysis. To detect any differentiation into human corneal endothelial-like cells, we analysed the transplanted cells by immunohistochemistry using specific antibodies. RESULTS We found transplanted cells form a single layer of cells with a hexagonal shape in the periphery of the DM. The majority of the cells were negative for octamer-binding transcription factor 4 but positive for paired box 6 protein, sodium potassium adenosine triphosphatase (NaKATPase), and Zona Occludens protein 1. In four of the 18 trials, the transplanted cells were found to express CK3, which indicates that the stem cells differentiated into corneal epithelial cells in these cases. CONCLUSION It is possible to get cells originating from hESCs to become established on a human DM, where they grow and differentiate into corneal endothelial-like cells in vitro.De Blindas Vänner, Gothenburg, and Greta Bergs Foundation, Lerum (to Charles Hanson); University of Akureyri Research Fund, the KEA Fund, and the Icelandic Council on Ageing (to Arsaell Arnarsson); and Gothenburg Medical Society, the Medical Faculty of the University of Gothenburg and the Herman Svensson Foundation (to Ulf Stenevi)Peer Reviewe

ESPAD Report 2019: Results From European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs

The main purpose of the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD) is to collect comparable data on substance use and other forms of risk behaviour among 15- to 16-year-old students in order to monitor trends within, as well as between, countries. Between 1995 and 2019, seven waves of data collection were conducted across 49 European countries. This report presents selected key results. The full set of data on which the current report is based, including all of the standard tables, is available online (http://www.espad.org). All tables can be downloaded in Excel format and used for further analysi

Sadness amongst school-children in Iceland

Sú skoðun að kynslóðin sem nú vex úr grasi sé útsettari fyrir depurð en þær sem á undan hafa komið er útbreidd bæði á meðal almennings og fagaðila. Markmið þessarar rannsóknar var að skoða hvernig algengi daglegrar depurðar íslenskra unglinga breyttist á árunum 2006–2018 og hvaða þættir tengdust daglegri depurð í fyrirlögn árið 2018. Notuð voru gögn úr rannsókninni Heilsa og lífskjör skólabarna (e. Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children - HBSC). Frá árinu 2006 hefur þessi rannsókn verið lögð fyrir í 6., 8. og 10. bekk á Íslandi og í síðustu fyrirlögn veturinn 2017–2018 fengust svör frá 7.159 nemendum. Niðurstöðurnar sýndu að tíðni daglegrar depurðar hafði aukist um þriðjung á tímabilinu, eða úr 5,8% árið 2006 í 7,6% árið 2018. Mjög slæm fjárhagsstaða fjölskyldu og svefnörðugleikar á hverri nóttu 25-földuðu líkurnar á því að unglingar fyndu fyrir depurð á hverjum degi. Að finnast maður vera alltof feitur 13-faldaði líkurnar, tíð áfengisneysla tífaldaði þær og einelti oft í viku nífaldaði þær. Þeir unglingar sem skilgreindu kyn sitt sem „annað“ en strákur eða stelpa, voru átta sinnum líklegri en jafnaldrar þeirra til að finna fyrir depurð daglega. Sama átti við um þá sem reyktu sígarettur eða kannabis reglulega. Fimmföldun á áhættu sást meðal þeirra sem notuðu rafrettur reglulega, áttu slök tengsl við foreldra eða við skóla. Slök vinatengsl þrefölduðu líkurnar. Aðrir þættir sem um það bil tvöfölduðu líkurnar voru annað fæðingarland unglings en Ísland og fæðingarland foreldra hans. Stelpur voru líka tvöfalt líklegri en strákar til að finna fyrir depurð nær daglega. Enn aðrir þættir höfðu veikari fylgni. Þannig voru 10. bekkingar helmingi líklegri en 6. bekkingar til að finna fyrir depurð daglega og óeðlileg skjánotkun jók líkurnar um 60%. Af niðurstöðunum má ráða að tíðni daglegrar depurðar meðal íslenskra unglinga hefur sannarlega aukist. Ýmsir þættir hafa fylgni við depurð unglinga en líklegast er að aukning í svefnörðugleikum skýri mest af þeirri aukningu sem sést.Although it is perfectly normal to experience a low mood every now and then during adolescence as in other periods of the life-span, chronic sadness during this period can be a precursor to serious and repeated bouts of depression, anxiety, substance abuse and suicidal behavior. The current generation of adolescents is generally thought, both by the public as well as professionals, to be more susceptible to sadness than previous generations. How susceptible adolescents are to serious bouts of sadness is related to a number of concurrent factors that have to do with genetics, development and social status. The aim of the current study was to document changes in the prevalence of daily sadness amongst Icelandic adolescents from 2006–2018, and identify factors related to daily sadness in 2018. The study is based on information gathered as part of the project Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) in which adolescents are asked about various issues relating to health, well-being and social situation. This data has been collected in Iceland every fourth year from 2006 and in the final phase of 2017–2018 a total of 7,159 students responded to the questionnaire. Prior to data collection, the questionnaire, together with a research plan, was submitted to the Icelandic Data Protection Authority and the University of Iceland Ethics Committee, neither of which had any reservations regarding the procedure. Subsequently, the same information was sent to all headmasters in Iceland in schools that had students in 6th, 8th or 10th grade, requesting their permission to conduct the study. As a follow-up, all parents and guardians received a letter of introduction with clear instructions as to how to decline a child’s participation. In the 2017–2019 phase, the questionnaire was in digitized form. The tables in the school-room were moved apart to ensure that students could not see one another’s answers. Then each student accessed the document on their computer. In the beginning there was a short introduction to the study accompanied by a clear statement that even though the study had been approved by school authorities and parents, the students were under no obligation to participate. The anonymity of answers was also emphasized. The results show that the prevalence of daily sadness had increased by a third from 2006 to 2018, from 5.8% to 7.6% respectively. Adolescents coming from the poorest homes and those experiencing sleep difficulties almost every night had an almost 25-fold risk of daily sadness. Adolescents that experience themselves as being far too fat have a 13-fold risk, using alcohol frequently increased it tenfold and being bullied often every week increased the risk ninefold. Adolescents identifying their sex as “Other” than male or female were eight times more likely to experience daily sadness, as were those who frequently smoked cigarettes or cannabis. A fivefold increase in risk was seen amongst most frequent users of e-cigarettes, as well as among those who had poor relations with parents or school. Poor relations with friends tripled the risk. Other factors that approximately doubled the risk were immigration status, and female compared with male gender. Other variables had less impact. Tenth graders were around 50% more likely than sixth graders to experience sadness on a daily basis and disordered use of social media caused a 60% increase. From these results one can conclude that the prevalence of daily sadness amongst Icelandic adolescents has indeed increased during the period from 2006 to 2018. Various factors influence the likelihood of daily sadness but the increase noted is probably related to upsurge in sleeping difficulties. It is important to make risk prevention easier, cheaper and more accessible to adolescents. Emphasis needs to be placed on coping skills, life skills, nurturing communication and healthy life-styles. In Iceland parents need to pay particular attention to their children’s sleeping habits, schools need to focus on reducing bullying and school stress, and society as a whole should stop stigmatizing adolescents based on gender, race, sexual orientation, body composition, economic status or skills.Peer Reviewe

Social inequalities and psychosomatic complaints in Icelandic adolescents

Lök lífsskilyrði unglinga, hvort heldur sem þau felast í bágri fjárhagsstöðu heimilisins ellegar í miklum samfélagslegum ójöfnuði, eru heilsufarslegur áhættuþáttur. Í þessari rannsókn voru notuð gögn úr íslenskum hluta alþjóðlegrar rannsóknar á heilsu og lífskjörum skólabarna (Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children – HBSC). Svörum var safnað frá nemendum í 6., 8. og 10. bekk árin 2006, 2010, 2014 og 2018. Þeir voru spurðir um tíðni höfuðverkja, magaverkja, bakverkja, depurðar, pirrings, svefnörðugleika og verkja í hálsi, herðum og útlimum. Félagshagfræðileg staða var metin út frá spurningu um fjárhagslega stöðu fjölskyldunnar miðað við aðra. Um þriðjungur unglinga upplifði tíða verki og vanlíðan. Tíðni þessara sállíkamlegu umkvartana jókst mikið á tímabilinu. Bág fjárhagsstaða fjölskyldu, tvö- til fjórfaldaði líkurnar á því að unglingar fyndu fyrir tíðum einkennum. Þessar niðurstöður gefa til kynna að mikilvægt sé fyrir þá aðila sem meðhöndla verki og vanlíðan ungmenna að kynna sér félagslega stöðu þeirra og hvaða áhrif hún getur haft.Adolescent well-being has been decreasing in most Western societies for the past decades. This is particularly true of girls. Better socioeconomic status (SES) has been shown to increase the likelihood of adolescents being happy, healthy and enjoying school. Studies have also shown that adolescents with lower SES are more likely to engage in risky behavior (e.g., smoking, having a poor diet or being sedentary), have a more negative view of their health and well-being, and have more problems regarding behavior, emotions and relations. Poor living conditions, whether caused by a difficult financial situation at home or social inequality, are a risk factor of adolescent health. The stress and strain of a low SES particularly affects the family life of these adolescents, causing worse communication, more conflict and lower support. All of these are known risk factors regarding adolescent health. Iceland is an interesting case in this respect. It is a highly prosperous society with some of the lowest levels of social inequalities measured in the OECD countries. It is, therefore, particularly interesting to see whether health inequalities exist among adolescents living in a country where material privation is rare and equality is high. The study is based on information gathered as part of the project Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) in which adolescents are asked about various issues related to health, well-being and social situation. Answers were collected from students in the 6th, 8th and 10th grade in consequent waves in 2006, 2010, 2014 and 2018. Prior to data collection the questionnaires, along with a research plan, were sent to the Icelandic Data Protection Authority and the University of Iceland Ethics Committee, neither of which had any reservations regarding the procedure. Then the same information was sent to all headmasters in Iceland in schools with students in the 6th, 8th or 10th grade, asking for their permission to run the study. Subsequently all parents and guardians received a letter of introduction with clear instructions as to how to reject a child’s participation. In the 2017–2019 wave the questionnaires were in digitized form. The tables in the schoolroom were moved apart to ensure that students could not see one another’s answers. Then each student accessed the survey on his/her computer. In the beginning there was a short introduction to the study together with a clear statement that even though the study had been approved by school authorities and parents, the students were under no obligation to participate. The anonymity of answers was also emphasized. They were asked about the frequency of headaches, stomach aches, backaches, sadness, irritability, sleeping difficulties and pains in neck, shoulders and limbs. Socioeconomic status was estimated by asking how their family compared with others financially. About a third of the adolescents experienced frequent aches and ill-being. The prevalence of these psychosomatic complaints rose during the study period. The proportion of adolescents reporting two or more symptoms every week for the past six months rose by 2% from 2006 to 2018. However, the number of adolescents experiencing the highest number of symptoms has doubled during this period. Studies on psychosomatic symptoms amongst adolescents can provide important information about their overall health, as traditional clinical studies on morbidity and mortality can only demonstrate a narrow view for this age-group. Psychosomatic complaints encompass a broad spectrum of symptoms experienced by the individual – from occasional discomfort to functional impairment. Minor complaints about headaches, anxiety, stomach-ache and dizziness are quite common amongst adolescents, but this does not mean they are unimportant. On the contrary. Studies show that even minor psychosomatic symptoms predict increased risk for the individual of developing serious mental issues later in life, as well as reducing well-being in adolescence. The results of the current study show that poor socioeconomic status of the family doubled or quadrupled the likelihood of frequent complaints amongst the adolescents. These results indicate how important it is for those health professionals who treat adolescent aches and illbeing to be aware of their socioeconomic status and the impact this can have. From a health promoting point of view these results highlight the importance of tackling the causes of health inequality in adolescence from a broad societal perspective.Peer Reviewe

Viðhorf íslenskra grunnskólanema til eineltis og inngripa í eineltismál út frá reynslu þeirra af einelti

Einelti er algengt og alvarlegt vandamál í skólastarfi. Þó að skólayfirvöld hér á landi hafi gripið til ýmissa aðgerða til að sporna við einelti hefur árangurinn ekki verið eins góður og vonast var til. Í þessari rannsókn var skoðuð reynsla íslenskra grunnskólanema af einelti og jafnframt könnuð viðhorf þeirra til ýmissa þátta, eins og inngripa kennara, ábyrgðar nemenda, viðbragða áhorfenda og eineltisáætlana skóla. Rannsóknarspurningar voru eftirfarandi: Eru viðhorf nemenda til eineltis ólík eftir reynslu þeirra af einelti? Eru viðhorf nemenda til eineltisáætlana og viðbragða við einelti ólík eftir reynslu þeirra af einelti? Svarendur voru 10.651 nemandi í 6., 8. og 10. bekk á Íslandi veturinn 2013–14 eða 84% af heildarfjölda nemenda í þessum árgöngum. Niðurstöður sýna að hægt er að skipta þátttakendum í fjóra hópa eftir tengslum þeirra við einelti. Hóparnir eru þolendur, gerendur, hvoru tveggja þolendur og gerendur og svo þau börn sem ekki tengjast einelti með beinum hætti. Í rannsókninni voru svör þátttakenda við níu spurningum um einelti skoðuð út frá þessum fjórum hópum. Í ljós kom að viðhorf nemendanna lituðust af reynslu þeirra af einelti. Gerendur og þolendur/gerendur höfðu til að mynda neikvæðari viðhorf til ýmissa þátta. Einnig kom í ljós að aðeins um helmingur þátttakenda taldi sig þekkja eineltisáætlun skóla síns. Þá vakti athygli að um tíu prósent nemenda töldu að einelti væri þolendum að kenna. Auk þess óttaðist nokkur hluti nemenda að mæta í skólann vegna eineltis. Niðurstöður rannsóknarinnar benda til þess að vinna þurfi með viðhorf nemenda og auka umræður og fræðslu um eineltisáætlanir og inngrip í eineltismál.Ritrýnd grei