Mitofusin 2 is essential for IP3-mediated SR/Mitochondria metabolic feedback in ventricular myocytes

Aim: Endothelin-1 (ET-1) and angiotensin II (Ang II) are multifunctional peptide hormones that regulate the function of the cardiovascular and renal systems. Both hormones increase the intracellular production of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP$_3$) by activating their membrane-bound receptors. We have previously demonstrated that IP$_3$-mediated sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca$^{2+}$ release results in mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake and activation of ATP production. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that intact SR/mitochondria microdomains are required for metabolic IP$_3$-mediated SR/mitochondrial feedback in ventricular myocytes. Methods: As a model for disrupted mitochondrial/SR microdomains, cardio-specific tamoxifen-inducible mitofusin 2 (Mfn2) knock out (KO) mice were used. Mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake, membrane potential, redox state, and ATP generation were monitored in freshly isolated ventricular myocytes from Mfn2 KO mice and their control wild-type (WT) littermates. Results: Stimulation of ET-1 receptors in healthy control myocytes increases mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake, maintains mitochondrial membrane potential and redox balance leading to the enhanced ATP generation. Mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake upon ET-1 stimulation was significantly higher in interfibrillar (IFM) and perinuclear (PNM) mitochondria compared to subsarcolemmal mitochondria (SSM) in WT myocytes. Mfn2 KO completely abolished mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake in IFM and PNM mitochondria but not in SSM. However, mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake induced by beta-adrenergic receptors activation with isoproterenol (ISO) was highest in SSM, intermediate in IFM, and smallest in PNM regions. Furthermore, Mfn2 KO did not affect ISO-induced mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake in SSM and IFM mitochondria; however, enhanced mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake in PNM. In contrast to ET-1, ISO induced a decrease in ATP levels in WT myocytes. Mfn2 KO abolished ATP generation upon ET-1 stimulation but increased ATP levels upon ISO application with highest levels observed in PNM regions. Conclusion: When the physical link between SR and mitochondria by Mfn2 was disrupted, the SR/mitochondrial metabolic feedback mechanism was impaired resulting in the inability of the IP$_3$-mediated SR Ca$^{2+}$ release to induce ATP production in ventricular myocytes from Mfn2 KO mice. Furthermore, we revealed the difference in Mfn2-mediated SR-mitochondrial communication depending on mitochondrial location and type of communication (IP$_3$R-mRyR1 vs. ryanodine receptor type 2-mitochondrial calcium uniporter)

Mitofusin 2 is essential for IP3-mediated SR/mitochondria metabolic feedback in ventricular myocytes

Aim: Endothelin-1 (ET-1) and angiotensin II (Ang II) are multifunctional peptide hormones that regulate the function of the cardiovascular and renal systems. Both hormones increase the intracellular production of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP$_3$) by activating their membrane-bound receptors. We have previously demonstrated that IP$_3$-mediated sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca$^{2+}$ release results in mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake and activation of ATP production. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that intact SR/mitochondria microdomains are required for metabolic IP$_3$-mediated SR/mitochondrial feedback in ventricular myocytes. Methods: As a model for disrupted mitochondrial/SR microdomains, cardio-specific tamoxifen-inducible mitofusin 2 (Mfn2) knock out (KO) mice were used. Mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake, membrane potential, redox state, and ATP generation were monitored in freshly isolated ventricular myocytes from Mfn2 KO mice and their control wild-type (WT) littermates. Results: Stimulation of ET-1 receptors in healthy control myocytes increases mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake, maintains mitochondrial membrane potential and redox balance leading to the enhanced ATP generation. Mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake upon ET-1 stimulation was significantly higher in interfibrillar (IFM) and perinuclear (PNM) mitochondria compared to subsarcolemmal mitochondria (SSM) in WT myocytes. Mfn2 KO completely abolished mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake in IFM and PNM mitochondria but not in SSM. However, mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake induced by beta-adrenergic receptors activation with isoproterenol (ISO) was highest in SSM, intermediate in IFM, and smallest in PNM regions. Furthermore, Mfn2 KO did not affect ISO-induced mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake in SSM and IFM mitochondria; however, enhanced mitochondrial Ca$^{2+}$ uptake in PNM. In contrast to ET-1, ISO induced a decrease in ATP levels in WT myocytes. Mfn2 KO abolished ATP generation upon ET-1 stimulation but increased ATP levels upon ISO application with highest levels observed in PNM regions. Conclusion: When the physical link between SR and mitochondria by Mfn2 was disrupted, the SR/mitochondrial metabolic feedback mechanism was impaired resulting in the inability of the IP$_3$-mediated SR Ca$^{2+}$ release to induce ATP production in ventricular myocytes from Mfn2 KO mice. Furthermore, we revealed the difference in Mfn2-mediated SR-mitochondrial communication depending on mitochondrial location and type of communication (IP$_3$R-mRyR1 vs. ryanodine receptor type 2-mitochondrial calcium uniporter)

Hormonerzatz-Therapie und kardiovaskuläre Erkrankungen : Unterschiedliche Wirkungen einer alleinigen Gabe von Östradiol und einer kombinierten Applikation von Östradiol und Medroxyprogesterone Acetate

A rising percentage of women with risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) reach menopause and experience postmenopausal symptoms. In consequence they require assessment concerning the appropriate combination and safety of a hormone replacement therapy. Clinical trials using the combination of equine estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) reported an increased risk of thromboembolic events and no cardiovascular protective effects in women receiving this type of hormone replacement therapy. However unopposed estradiol and different regimes estrogens/progestins in vitro and in animal studies have proved to be beneficial for the cardiovascular system. Thus it is possible that the negative outcomes of the clinical trials are an exclusive feature of the regime equine estrogens plus MPA. The present study was initiated to evaluate the cardiovascular effects and possible mechanism of damage of the regime MPA plus 17ß-estradiol in comparison to unopposed 17ß-estradiol during cardiac disease. The role of 17ß-estradiol and MPA during left ventricular dysfunction and chronic heart failure was studied in female Wistar rats that received myocardial infarction. After 8 weeks of treatment the combination of MPA plus estradiol aggravated left ventricular remodelling and dysfunction as judged by increased heart weight, elevated left ventricular end diastolic pressure and decreased left ventricular fractional shortening, effects that were accompanied by increase left ventricular oxidative stress and expression of rac 1 and p67phox regulatory subunits of the NADPH oxidase. In contrast ovariectomy as well as 17ß- estradiol supplementation conferred neutral effects on cardiac function and remodelling post myocardial infarction. Suggesting that the aggravating symptoms of the regime MPA plus 17ß –estradiol are inherent to this pharmacological regime and are not a class effect of the progesterone receptor ligands and are neither due to inhibition of estradiol beneficial effects. Considering that aldosterone plays an important role in the development and aggravation of cardiovascular disease the cardiovascular effects of MPA plus 17ß –estradiol was studied in a model of mineralocorticoid receptor activation and compared to the effects of regimes based in drospirenone, a new progestin with antimineralocorticoid properties. The complex pattern of cardiovascular injury in ovariectomized Wistar rats induced by 8 weeks of continuous chronic aldosterone infusion and high-salt diet was significantly attenuated in sham-ovariectomized rats and by coadministration of 17 ß-estradiol in ovariectomized animals. The beneficial role of 17 ß-estradiol on blood pressure, cardiac hypertrophy, vascular osteopontin expression and perivascular fibrosis was completely abrogated by coadministration of MPA. In contrast, drospirenone was either neutral or additive to 17 ß-estradiol in protecting against aldosterone salt-induced cardiovascular injury and inflammation. Taking into account that the kidney plays a major role for the development and aggravation of hypertension a further characterization of fluid balance, renal morphology and renal gene expression in the aldosterone salt treated rats was conducted. Aldo-salt treatment resulted in remnant kidney hypertrophy without structural damage, effects that were not modified by 17 ß-estradiol. However combination of MPA with 17 ß-estradiol enhanced kidney hypertrophy, fluid turnover, renal sodium retention and potassium excretion and was associated with increased renal ENaC expression, extensive renal lesions, tubular damage and enhanced p67phox expression and protein tyrosin nitrosylation. Different to the protective effects of drospirenone that included a complete blockade of kidney hypertrophy and sodium retention and enhanced renal expression of angiotensin II type-2 receptors. Therefore the loss of 17 ß-estradiol cardiovascular beneficial effects and the renal harmful effects in the aldosterone salt treated rats receiving MPA can not be extrapolated to other progestins. Indeed drospirenone conferred protective effects due to its antimineralocorticoid properties. In conclusion, the choice of specific synthetic progestins has profound implications on the development of cardiovascular and renal injury; MPA aggravated cardiac disease, which contributes to explain the adverse outcomes of clinical trials on the prevention of cardiovascular disease by combined estrogen and MPA treatment.Eine zunehmende Zahl postmenopausaler Frauen mit kardiovaskulären Risikofaktoren leidet unter menopausalen Beschwerden. Diese Patientinnen benötigen daher eine Beratung hinsichtlich der Sicherheit einer post-menopausalen Hormonersatz-THerapie da klinische Studien ein gehäuftes Auftreten thromboembolischer Ereignisse unter einer kombinierten Gabe von Östrogenen und Medroxyprogesteron Acetat (MPA) nachgewiesen haben. Zudem war eine Protektion gegen kardiovaskuläre Erkrankungen, die nach der Menopause gehäuft auftreten, nicht nachweisbar. Im Gegensatz hierzu belegt eine Vielzahl von experimentellen Studien eine günstige Wirkung einer alleinigen Östrogensubstitution. Es erscheint daher möglich, dass die ungünstigen Wirkungen einer Hormonersatz-Therapie im Wesentlichen auf die Progesteron Komponente zurückzuführen ist, welche bei Frauen mit intaktem Uterus jedoch erforderlich ist um einer Endometriumhyperplasie vorzubeugen. Wenige experimentelle Studien haben bislang die Wirkungen unterschiedlicher, synthetischer Progestine im Herz- Kreislaufsystem untersucht. In der vorliegenden Studie war es daher erstmalig die Wirkung einer alleinigen Gabe von Östradiol mit einer kombinierten Applikation von Östradiol und MPA nach experimentellem Myokardinfarkt bei weiblichen Ratten verglichen. Die Kombination von Östradiol und MPA, nicht jedoch Östradiol allein oder natives Progesteron, führte zu einer Verschlechterung myokardialer Umbauprozesse (remodeling) welches in einer weiteren Verschlechterung der linksventrikulären Pumpfunktion resultierte. Diese sehr ungünstigen funktionellen Effekte waren mit einer vermehrten Generierung freier Sauerstoffradikale durch NADPH Oxidasen verbunden. Diese Beobachtungen unterstützen die Hypothese, dass MPA möglicherweise einen wesentlichen Anteil an den ungünstigen Wirkungen einer Hormonersatz-Therapie hat. Hierbei handelt es sich nicht um einen Klassen-Effekt aller Progestine sondern um eine spezifische Eigenschaft von MPA. Mineralokortikoid-Rezeptoren, welche durch Aldosteron und durch MPA aktiviert werden, besitzen auch eine wesentliche Funktion für pathologische Umbauprozesse im Myokard und im Gefäßsystem. Daher wurde in einem weiteren Ansatz die Frage untersucht, ob Östrogene und unterschiedliche synthetische Progestine (MPA, Drospirenon) aldosteron-gesteuerte, pathologische Umbauprozesse im Herzkreislaufsystem möglicherweise gegensinnig beeinflussen. Nach 8-wöchiger Aldosteron-Salz Behandlung zeigten zuvor normotensive Wistar Ratten eine arterielle Hypertonie, eine Myokardhypertrophie sowie ausgeprägte, perivaskuläre inflammatorisch-fibrosierende Veränderungen im Myokard und der Aorta. Diese wurden durch eine Ovarektomie verstärkt und durch die Substitution von Östradiol gemindert. Die Kombination von Östradiol und MPA, nicht jedoch von Östradiol und Drospirenon führte zu einer massiven Verstärkung des kardiovaskulären remoidelings. Gleichsinnige Beobachtungen wurden auch an den Nieren der Tiere gemacht; MPA, nicht jedoch DRSP, induzierte eine massive Nephropathie mit extensiver Glomerulosklerose, inflammatorischen Infiltraten und einer stark ausgeprägten Tubulo- und Vaskulopathie. Die ungünstigen Effekte von MPA waren auch hier wiederum mit einer verstärkten Expression und Aktivität der NADPH Oxidase verbunden. An der Niere MPA behandelter Tiere wurde zudem eine verstärkte Expression des endothelialen Natrium Kanals (ENaC) nachgewiesen, welche als kausaler Mechanismus der unter MPA exzessiv gesteigerten Natriumresorption in Betracht kommt. Drospirenon, welches neben seiner Wirkung als Progestin auch eine starke anti-mineralokortikoide Wirkung besitzt, führte in Kombination mit Östradiol zu einer kompletten Normalisierung des kardiovaskulären und renalen Phänotyps. Zusammenfassend besitzt die Wahl eines spezifischen, synthetischen Progestins (MPA, DRSP) einen hohen Stellenwert für die Sicherheit und Effizienz einer Hormonersatz-Therapie bei Patientinnen mit bereits bestehenden Herz- Kreislauferkrankungen zu besitzen. Neuere Progestine (DRSP) mit einem genau definierten Wirkungsspektrum könnten auch klinisch zu einer besseren Verträglichkeit einer HRT führen und die protektiven Wirkungen von Östrogenen unterstützen. Hierzu sind weitere klinische und experimentelle Untersuchungen erforderlich

Fast myocardial T1P_{1P} mapping in mice using k-space weighted image contrast and a Bloch simulation-optimized radial sampling pattern

Purpose T$_{1P}$ dispersion quantification can potentially be used as a cardiac magnetic resonance index for sensitive detection of myocardial fibrosis without the need of contrast agents. However, dispersion quantification is still a major challenge, because T$_{1P}$ mapping for different spin lock amplitudes is a very time consuming process. This study aims to develop a fast and accurate T$_{1P}$ mapping sequence, which paves the way to cardiac T1ρ dispersion quantification within the limited measurement time of an in vivo study in small animals. Methods A radial spin lock sequence was developed using a Bloch simulation-optimized sampling pattern and a view-sharing method for image reconstruction. For validation, phantom measurements with a conventional sampling pattern and a gold standard sequence were compared to examine T$_{1P}$ quantification accuracy. The in vivo validation of T$_{1P}$ mapping was performed in N = 10 mice and in a reproduction study in a single animal, in which ten maps were acquired in direct succession. Finally, the feasibility of myocardial dispersion quantification was tested in one animal. Results The Bloch simulation-based sampling shows considerably higher image quality as well as improved T$_{1P}$ quantification accuracy (+ 56%) and precision (+ 49%) compared to conventional sampling. Compared to the gold standard sequence, a mean deviation of - 0.46 ± 1.84% was observed. The in vivo measurements proved high reproducibility of myocardial T$_{1P}$ mapping. The mean T$_{1P}$ in the left ventricle was 39.5 ± 1.2 ms for different animals and the maximum deviation was 2.1% in the successive measurements. The myocardial T$_{1P}$ dispersion slope, which was measured for the first time in one animal, could be determined to be 4.76 ± 0.23 ms/kHz. Conclusion This new and fast T$_{1P}$ quantification technique enables high-resolution myocardial T$_{1P}$ mapping and even dispersion quantification within the limited time of an in vivo study and could, therefore, be a reliable tool for improved tissue characterization

Quantification correction for free-breathing myocardial T1ρ mapping in mice using a recursively derived description of a T1p_{1p}∗^{*} relaxation pathway

Background Fast and accurate T1ρ mapping in myocardium is still a major challenge, particularly in small animal models. The complex sequence design owing to electrocardiogram and respiratory gating leads to quantification errors in in vivo experiments, due to variations of the T$_{1p}$ relaxation pathway. In this study, we present an improved quantification method for T$_{1p}$ using a newly derived formalism of a T$_{1p}$$^{*}$ relaxation pathway. Methods The new signal equation was derived by solving a recursion problem for spin-lock prepared fast gradient echo readouts. Based on Bloch simulations, we compared quantification errors using the common monoexponential model and our corrected model. The method was validated in phantom experiments and tested in vivo for myocardial T$_{1p}$ mapping in mice. Here, the impact of the breath dependent spin recovery time T$_{rec}$ on the quantification results was examined in detail. Results Simulations indicate that a correction is necessary, since systematically underestimated values are measured under in vivo conditions. In the phantom study, the mean quantification error could be reduced from − 7.4% to − 0.97%. In vivo, a correlation of uncorrected T$_{1p}$ with the respiratory cycle was observed. Using the newly derived correction method, this correlation was significantly reduced from r = 0.708 (p < 0.001) to r = 0.204 and the standard deviation of left ventricular T$_{1p}$ values in different animals was reduced by at least 39%. Conclusion The suggested quantification formalism enables fast and precise myocardial T$_{1p}$ quantification for small animals during free breathing and can improve the comparability of study results. Our new technique offers a reasonable tool for assessing myocardial diseases, since pathologies that cause a change in heart or breathing rates do not lead to systematic misinterpretations. Besides, the derived signal equation can be used for sequence optimization or for subsequent correction of prior study results

Pioglitazone reverses down-regulation of cardiac PPARgamma expression in Zucker diabetic fatty rats.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma) plays a critical role in peripheral glucose homeostasis and energy metabolism, and inhibits cardiac hypertrophy in non-diabetic animal models. The functional role of PPARgamma in the diabetic heart, however, is not fully understood. Therefore, we analyzed cardiac gene expression, metabolic control, and cardiac glucose uptake in male Zucker diabetic fatty rats (ZDF fa/fa) and lean ZDF rats (+/+) treated with the high affinity PPARgamma agonist pioglitazone or placebo from 12 to 24 weeks of age. Hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and hypertriglyceridemia as well as lower cardiac PPARgamma, glucose transporter-4 and alpha-myosin heavy chain expression levels were detected in diabetic ZDF rats compared to lean animals. Pioglitazone increased body weight and improved metabolic control, cardiac PPARgamma, glut-4, and alpha-MHC expression levels in diabetic ZDF rats. Cardiac [(18)F]fluorodeoxyglucose uptake was not detectable by micro-PET studies in untreated and pioglitazone treated ZDF fa/fa rats but was observed after administration of insulin to pioglitazone treated ZDF fa/fa rats. PPARgamma agonists favorably affect cardiac gene expression in type-2 diabetic rats via activation and up-regulation of cardiac PPARgamma expression whereas improvement of impaired cardiac glucose uptake in advanced type-2 diabetes requires co-administration of insulin

Both estrogen receptor subtypes, alpha and beta, attenuate cardiovascular remodeling in aldosterone salt-treated rats.

Experimental and population-based studies indicate that female gender and estrogens protect the cardiovascular system against aldosterone-induced injury. Understanding the function of estrogens in heart disease requires more precise information on the role of both estrogen receptor (ER) subtypes, ERalpha and ERbeta. Therefore, we determined whether selective activation of ERalpha or of ERbeta would confer redundant, specific, or opposing effects on cardiovascular remodeling in aldosterone salt-treated rats. The ERalpha agonist 16alpha-LE2, the ERbeta agonist 8beta-VE2, and the nonselective estrogen receptor agonist 17beta-estradiol lowered elevated blood pressure, cardiac mass, and cardiac myocyte cross-sectional areas, as well as increased perivascular collagen accumulation and vascular osteopontin expression in ovariectomized rats receiving chronic aldosterone infusion plus a high-salt diet for 8 weeks. Uterus atrophy was prevented by 16alpha-LE2 and 17beta-estradiol but not by 8beta-VE2. Cardiac proteome analyses by 2D gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, and peptide sequencing identified specific subsets of proteins involved in cardiac contractility, energy metabolism, cellular stress response and extracellular matrix formation that were regulated in opposite directions by aldosterone salt treatment and by different estrogen receptor agonists. We conclude that activation of either ERalpha or ERbeta protects the cardiovascular system against the detrimental effects of aldosterone salt treatment and confers redundant, as well as specific, effects on cardiac protein expression. Nonfeminizing ERbeta agonists such as 8beta-VE2 have a therapeutic potential in the treatment of hypertensive heart disease