Comparison of visually estimated loss and actual deficit in grain yield at harvest as compared to fenced control plots (both expressed in percentage).

<p>A: Rice (r = 0.062, p = 0.73, n = 32), B: Chickpea (r = 0.022, p = 0.86, n = 63), C: Wheat (r = -0.0519, p = 0.75, n = 39). All trends remained non-significant even after removing outliers. Apart from lack of correlation, note the orders of magnitude difference in scales. Cumulative visual assessment was dramatically lower than yield deficit.</p

Artificial herbivory in Wheat: comparison of regrowth by wheat plants cut at different age.

<p>A: vegetative regrowth, B: number of seeds after regrowth (control, n = 125; age 25, n = 92; age 45, n = 202; age 55, n = 199) and comparison of regrowth of vegetative part in wheat plants cut at various heights at pre-flowering stage: C: vegetative regrowth, D: number of seeds. (Control, n = 125; height 5, n = 176; height 10, n = 178; height 15, n = 205).</p

Regrowth after artificial herbivory in soybean at different ages.

<p>A: regenerated height, B: number of branches, C: number of pods and D: number of seeds 20 days (n = 87) and 45 days (n = 107) with control (n = 108). Regrowth after artificial herbivory at different heights in pre-flowering stage in soybean. E: regenerated height, F: number of branches, G: number of pods, H: number of seeds in plants cut at 5 (n = 125), 10 (n = 128), 15 (n = 100), 20 (n = 74) with control (n = 108).</p

Temporal overlap of methods.

<p>Temporal overlap of methods.</p

Map and location of study area.

<p>Light gray shaded zones denote villages and dark gray denote Division Forest area; both together constituting the buffer zone. The buffer area comprises over 70 villages with agriculture as the main livelihood. The dotted ellipse represents our study area. Location of the experimental plots is indicated by the dark triangle and the three transect lines extending from forest boundary into agricultural lands are shown by dotted arrows.</p

Trend of per day probability of damage pooled from three transect lines.

<p>For each of the observed weeks, per day Poisson probability of raid between every one kilometer interval was calculated from the fraction of undamaged farms from all the three transects. A: Trend in kharif season (r = -0.4525, p = 0.0001, n = 90); B: Trend in rabi season (r = -0.5455, p = 0.0001, n = 98). C: Trend in average number of <i>machans</i> per farm along the transects (r = -0.9310, p<0.0001, n = 10).</p

Compensatory growth after artificial herbivory at different ages in chickpea.

<p>A: canopy height, B: canopy width, C: number of branches and D: number of seeds in plants cut when 25 days old (n = 53) and 45 days old (n = 51) with control (n = 50). Compensatory growth after artificial herbivory at different heights at pre-flowering stage in chickpea. E: canopy height, F: canopy width, G: number of branches, H: number of seeds of plants cut at 5 (n = 50), 10 (n = 51), 15 (n = 54) with control (n = 50).</p

Trend of grain yield at harvest with distance from PA boundary for 4 crops over 4 seasons.

<p>Soybean: A 2009 (r = 0.473, p = 0.0001, n = 95) and B 2010 (r = 0.448, p = 0.03, n = 22); Rice: C 2009 (r = -0.291, p = 0.08, n = 35), D 2010 (r = 0.53, p = 0.001, n = 20), E 2013 (r = -0.044, p = 0.73, n = 56) and F 2014 (r = 0.14, p = 0.28, n = 58); Chickpea: G 2009–10 (r = 0.466, p = 0.012, n = 27), H 2010–11 (r = 0.54, p = 0.01, n = 17), I 2013–14 (r = 0.378, p = 0.0029, n = 83) and J 2014–15 (r = 0.398, p = 0.0003, n = 78); Wheat: K 2009–10 (r = 0.147, p = 0.66, n = 10), L 2010–11 (r = 0.67, p = 0.01, n = 12), M 2013014 (r = 0.369, p = 0.004, n = 65) and N 2014–15 (r = 0.642, p = 0.0001, n = 67).</p

Experimental design for artificial herbivory of wheat, soybean and chickpea.

<p>Experimental design for artificial herbivory of wheat, soybean and chickpea.</p

Comparison of grain yield at harvest in fenced and non-fenced plots for 4 crops in two seasons.

<p>A: rice, B: soybean, C: chickpea, D: wheat. Soybean in 2013–14 and chickpea in 2014–15 failed due to reasons other than herbivory.</p