State and Citizens’ Secondary Responsibility Arising from the Responsibility of International Organizations under the Principles of Morality and Equity

زمینه و هدف: نظام مسؤولیت بین‌المللی دولت‌ها، مورد پرسش فیلسوفان حقوق بین‌الملل بوده است. انتقاد اصلی آن‌ها به منصفانه‌نبودن تحمیل بار مسؤولیت بر شهروندان بی‌تقصیر دولت‌ها، به ویژه منصفانه‌نبودن نظام مسؤولیت ثانوی در حقوق بین‌الملل مربوط است. این امر موجب پیداش نظریه فردی‌بودن مسؤولیت دولت‌ها شده است. هدف مقاله حاضر تبیین این موضوع است که آیا نظام حقوقی مسؤولیت ثانوی دولت و شهروندان ناشی از مسؤولیت سازمان‌های بین‌المللی منصفانه بوده و با اصول اخلاقی سازگار است یا خیر؟ مواد و روش‌ها: در این مطالعه تحلیلی، مقالات و اسناد حقوقی منتشرشده در زمینه مسائل اخلاقی و حقوقی به صورت هدفمند جستجو شده و سپس استدلال‌های موافقان و مخالفان نظریه مسؤولیت اخلاقی و حقوقی دولت‌ها مورد تحلیل قرار گرفته است. یافته‌ها: یافته‌های مقاله حاضر حاکی از آن است که نظام حقوقی مسؤولیت ثانوی دولت و شهروندان ناشی از مسؤولیت سازمان‌های بین‌المللی، نه‌تنها غیر منصفانه نیست، بلکه با تعهد به جبران خسارت زیان‌دیدگان، منصفانه و اخلاقی‌بودن این نظام حقوقی تضمین می‌شود. نتیجه‌گیری: در حقیقت مسؤولیت ثانوی دولت‌های عضو سازمان‌های بین‌المللی مطابق با اصول انصاف و اخلاق است.The regime of international responsibility of States has been questioned by philosophers of international law. Their main critique pertains to the fairness of the burden of its implementation on blameless individuals in that State, and especially to the fairness of their secondary (mostly financial) liability under domestic or international law (e.g., through taxation in order to pay war reparations). This has been coined the Individualist Challenge to State responsibility. This essay starts by debunking that challenge, before taking the discussion a step further to discuss a related (albeit yet unmade) argument of fairness that one may refer to, by analogy, as the Statist Argument. The Statist Argument would endorse the fairness of the current regime of international responsibility of international organizations (IOs) and in particular the absence of secondary liability of member States of a responsible IO. Addressing the Individualist Challenge and Statist Argument together and understanding why regimes of international responsibility law and our moral intuitions about them each pull in different directions, are the two aims of this essay. The essay turns the Statist Argument on its head and argues that secondary liabilities of member States actually amount to a requirement of fairness to the individuals in those States. It thereby contributes to taking further the debate about the reform of IO responsibility law by drawing on arguments in moral and political philosophy, on the one hand, and does so from the integrative perspective of the moral interests of the individual by discussing both State and IO responsibility lawtogether, on the other.   Please cite this article as: Ahmadnia H, Jalali M, Arashpour AR. State and Citizens’ Secondary Responsibility Arising from the Responsibility of International Organizations under the Principles of Morality and Equity. Bioethics Journal, Special Issue on Bioethics and Citizenship Rights 2020; 63-79

Review The approach of Customary Rules of International Environmental Law in Climate Change

Today, custom is of great importance in the world community and means a general procedure that has been accepted as a legal rule, and such a custom creates a mandatory legal rule that is implemented in relations between governments and has two material and spiritual elements. Unfortunately, despite the fact that many treaties, declarations and international documents have been issued in relation to the environment, we still see that the environmental situation of the planet is becoming more and more unfavorable, so the international community has principles abo0ut International environmental law has been drafted. With global warming and climate change, governments have come together to find a solution. Now we want to examine what the relationship is between customary international law and international environmental law, and to what extent the rules of customary international law can be effective in preventing environmental degradation and favoring climate change. International custom, if accompanied by the necessary publicity and acceptance, can have an aspect of law for the international community. Thus, the normalization of climate commitments is useful where governments' practices are not accountable and do not provide appropriate rules, and can be cited as a stimulus for governments to legislate

امکان‌سنجی اعمال حقوق صلح در حمایت از محیط زیست در مخاصمات مسلحانه بین‌المللی

Background and Aim: Protection of the environment according to the rights of peace is based on the potential application of environmental protection norms in peacetime and the extension of those norms to the time of international armed conflicts. Therefore, the following article seeks to evaluate and explore the role of peace rights in protecting the environment and its use in international armed conflicts. Materials and Methods: This research is of theoretical type and the research method is descriptive-analytical and the method of data collection is library and has been done by referring to documents, books and articles. Findings: Despite the fact that the principle of not resorting to force and embargoing war as an imperative rule is emphasized by the United Nations Charter and other international documents, However, in its permitted form, such as legitimate defense, humans and the environment are not immune from the consequences of war. These issues have caused the concern of the international community in such a way that the discussion of environmental protection in armed conflicts has been placed on the agenda of the International Law Commission. Ethical Considerations: In order to organize this research, while observing the authenticity of the texts, honesty and fidelity have been observed. Conclusion: Among the treaties that are clearly applicable during international armed conflict, two categories of treaties including treaties containing mandatory rules and treaties protecting fundamental human rights, to some extent include substantive environmental rights and requirements because the right to A healthy environment is a human right, and the prohibition of causing massive pollution in the environment has led to the creation of mandatory rules.زمینه و هدف: حمایت از محیط زیست به موجب حقوق صلح، مبتنی بر اعمال بالقوه هنجارهای حمایتی از محیط زیست در زمان صلح و تسری آن هنجارها به زمان وقوع مخاصمات مسلحانه بین‌المللی می‌باشد. از این رو مقاله پیش رو، درصدد است تا نقش حقوق صلح در حمایت از محیط زیست و به کارگیری آن در مخاصمات مسلحانه بین‌المللی را مورد ارزیابی و کنکاش قرار دهد. روش: این تحقیق از نوع نظری بوده، ‌روش تحقیق به صورت توصیفی ـ تحلیلی می‌باشد و روش جمع‏آوری اطلاعات به صورت کتابخانه‏ای است و با مراجعه به اسناد، کتب و مقالات صورت گرفته است. ملاحظات اخلاقی: در تمام مراحل نگارش پژوهش حاضر، ضمن رعایت اصالت متون، صداقت و امانتداری رعایت شده است. یافته‌ها: علیرغم اینکه اصل عدم توسل به زور و تحریم جنگ به عنوان قاعده آمره، مورد تأکید منشور ملل متحد و دیگر اسناد بین‌المللی است، مع‌الوصف همچنان در شکل مجاز آن مانند دفاع مشروع، انسان‌ها و محیط زیست از تبعات جنگ، مصون نمانده‌اند. این مسائل، نگرانی جامعه بین‌المللی را به دنبال داشته، به گونه‌ای که بحث حمایت از محیط زیست در مخاصمات مسلحانه در دستور کار کمیسیون حقوق بین‌الملل قرار گرفته است. نتیجه‌گیری: از میان معاهداتی که به وضوح قابلیت اعمال در طول مخاصمه مسلحانه بین‌المللی را دارند دو دسته از معاهدات شامل معاهدات حاوی قواعد آمره و معاهدات حمایت‌کننده از حقوق بنیادین و اساسی بشر، تا حدی شامل حقوق و الزامات ماهوی زیست محیطی می‌باشند، چراکه حق برخورداری از محیط زیست سالم، یک حق بشری است و همچنین ممنوعیت ایجاد آلودگی‌های شدید در محیط زیست باعث ایجاد قواعد آمره شده است

Optimizing decisions in advanced manufacturing of prefabricated products: theorizing supply chain configurations in off-site construction

© 2017 Robust supply decision making is critical to the advanced manufacturing of prefabricated products. Previous related research focused on minimizing cost overruns in off-site construction supply networks by optimizing purchasing decisions. However, decision parameters such as strategic preferences to include or exclude certain suppliers and utilization of multi-supplier configurations are yet to be formulated and analytically solved. The proposed optimization models aim to enhance supply network performance with a smaller overall investment. Toward this aim, three research hypotheses on optimization of supply decisions and configurations are developed and tested. A real-world precast panel production project serves as the test bed to demonstrate the effectiveness of the mathematical programming and analyze cost implications of supply related decisions. The modeling method and results contribute to optimal decision making in advanced manufacturing of prefabricated products