Evolutionary relationships between lyssaviruses.

<p>The time-scaled phylogeny was generated from 153 nucleoprotein gene sequences and inferred with a Lognormal relaxed-clock Bayesian analysis using BEAST. Branch colours correspond to ecozones shown on the inset map. Support values corresponding to Bayesian posterior probabilities (above branches) and states probabilities from the different assigned ecozones (below branches) are indicated for key nodes. The time scale in years is shown. Phylogroups 3 (green, top) and 2 (blue) are shaded and key nodes discussed in the text labelled A-D. Virus names are <i>Mokola virus</i> (MOKV); <i>Australian bat lyssavirus</i> (ABLV); <i>European bat lyssavirus-1</i> (EBLV-1); <i>European bat lyssavirus-2</i> (EBLV-2), <i>Irkut</i> (IRKV), <i>Aravan</i> (ARAV), <i>Khujand</i> (KHUV); <i>West Caucasian Bat Virus</i> (WCBV); <i>Lagos bat virus</i> (LBV); <i>Duvenhage virus</i> (DUVV); <i>Shimoni bat virus</i> (SHIBV); <i>Bokeloh bat lyssavirus</i> (BBLV); <i>Ikoma virus</i> (IKOV); <i>Lleida virus</i> (LLEBV); <i>Gannoruwa bat lyssavirus</i> (GBLV); <i>Rabies virus</i> (RABV).</p

Seroprevalence of henipaviruses (HeV and NiV) in fruit bats.

<p>Seroprevalence of henipaviruses (HeV and NiV) in fruit bats.</p

Definitions of risk [40].

<p>*Note: it is possible that the event is occurring but is not detected by current surveillance schemes/methods.</p

Identification of risk zones for henipavirus.

<p>Zone 1: countries with outbreaks of henipaviruses or where henipaviruses have been isolated from fruit bats. Zone 2: country that borders a Zone 1 country and <i>Pteropus</i> fruit bats are distributed in the country. Zone 3 indicates all other countries in Eurasia, and Africa and Australasia, which includes countries that have detected antibodies to henipaviruses in fruit bats. Zone 4: North and South America, which share no bat species with the “Old World” and no henipaviruses have been isolated or antibodies detected.</p

Release pathways for henipaviruses to be released into the UK via (a) imported bats (all species), pigs, horses and companion animals; (b) “natural importation” of insectivorous bats; (c) via human travel; (d) via a tonne of imported foodstuffs.

<p>Release pathways for henipaviruses to be released into the UK via (a) imported bats (all species), pigs, horses and companion animals; (b) “natural importation” of insectivorous bats; (c) via human travel; (d) via a tonne of imported foodstuffs.</p

Western blot analysis using a recombinant nucleoprotein protein of EBOV-Zaire.

<p>The five bat sera (bat serum #46, 48, 49, 50 and 53, respectively) were tested at 1∶100. The positive control antibody (anti-RGS-His monoclonal antibody, Invitrogen, USA) in strip 6 was tested at 1∶600. The numbers on the left are molecular masses in kDa derived from the BenchMark Pre-stained molecular markers (Invitrogen, USA).</p

Weekly presence determined by radio-telemetry of the female <i>Eidolon helvum</i> in central Accra, Ghana.

<p>The bat was determined to be seropositive against both Ebolavirus subtype Zaire and Lagos Bat Virus (Nigeria 1956 isolate). The bat was pregnant when sampled in January 2008. Monthly mean rainfall is shown in mm (data from World Weather Information Service).</p

Diversity and Epidemiology of Mokola Virus

<div><p>Mokola virus (MOKV) appears to be exclusive to Africa. Although the first isolates were from Nigeria and other Congo basin countries, all reports over the past 20 years have been from southern Africa. Previous phylogenetic studies analyzed few isolates or used partial gene sequence for analysis since limited sequence information is available for MOKV and the isolates were distributed among various laboratories. The complete nucleoprotein, phosphoprotein, matrix and glycoprotein genes of 18 MOKV isolates in various laboratories were sequenced either using partial or full genome sequencing using pyrosequencing and a phylogenetic analysis was undertaken. The results indicated that MOKV isolates from the Republic of South Africa, Zimbabwe, Central African Republic and Nigeria clustered according to geographic origin irrespective of the genes used for phylogenetic analysis, similar to that observed with Lagos bat virus. A Bayesian Markov-Chain-Monte-Carlo- (MCMC) analysis revealed the age of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of MOKV to be between 279 and 2034 years depending on the genes used. Generally, all MOKV isolates showed a similar pattern at the amino acid sites considered influential for viral properties.</p></div

MCC phylogenetic tree based on the concatenated nucleotide sequence of the complete N, P, M and G gene of MOKV isolates and representative lyssavirus isolates.

<p>A table indicating the details of the isolates used in the analysis is provided in the supplementary material (<a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002511#pntd.0002511.s005" target="_blank">Table S1</a>).</p

Map of Africa indicating approximate locations of MOKV isolations.

<p>The number next to the dots indicates the number of isolates isolated in the same (or in close locations such that the difference cannot be seen in the figure) location.</p